UNIT 3

Propositional Logic
What is Propositional Logic in Artificial Intelligence?

For idea-Read this

Propositional logic is needed in AI because it helps systems think logically and make decisions based on facts.
It’s like giving the AI a set of rules and letting it figure out the right answer or conclusion.

For example, if we know:

 "If it's raining, the ground will be wet" and

 "It is raining,"

the AI can use propositional logic to figure out that "The ground will be wet."

In short, it’s a way for AI to understand and work with true or false statements to solve problems, make
decisions, and draw conclusions.

Applications of Propositional Logic in AI

1. Knowledge Representation:

Propositional logic is used to represent knowledge in a structured and unambiguous way. It allows AI systems to store
and manipulate facts about the world. For instance, in expert systems, knowledge is encoded as a set of propositions
and logical rules.

2. Automated Reasoning:

AI systems use propositional logic to perform automated reasoning. Logical inference rules, such as Modus Ponens and
Modus Tollens, enable systems to derive new knowledge from existing facts. For example:

 Modus Ponens: If “P → Q” and “P” are true, then “Q” must be true.

 Modus Tollens: If “P → Q” and “¬Q” are true, then “¬P” must be true.

3. Problem Solving and Planning:

Propositional logic is fundamental in solving problems and planning actions. AI planners use logical representations of
actions, states, and goals to generate sequences of actions that achieve desired outcomes. For example, the STRIPS
planning system employs propositional logic to represent preconditions and effects of actions.

4. Decision Making:

In decision-making processes, propositional logic helps AI systems evaluate various options and determine the best
course of action. Logical rules can encode decision criteria, and truth tables can be used to assess the outcomes of
different choices.

5. Natural Language Processing (NLP):

Propositional logic is applied in NLP for tasks like semantic parsing, where natural language sentences are converted into
logical representations. This helps in understanding and reasoning about the meaning of sentences.

6. Game Theory and Multi-Agent Systems:

In game theory and multi-agent systems, propositional logic is used to model the beliefs and actions of agents. Logical
frameworks help in predicting the behavior of agents and designing strategies for interaction.

Limitations of Propositional Logic

While propositional logic is powerful, it has several limitations:

1. Lack of Expressiveness: s does not allow for the representation of how one proposition relates to another or to
use variables to refer to objects in the world (e. g. , “All human beings are mortal”).

2. Scalability: What has been a defining problem of propositional logic is that the size of the resultant truth tables
increases exponentially with the number of propositions, which makes practical problems infeasible.

3. Limited Inference: It can only take on ‘true or false’ solutions, not probabilities or multidimensional security
levels of truth.

“for all” (denoted by ∀) or “there exists” (denoted by ∃), both of which are powerful expressions.
4. Absence of Quantifiers: Unlike predicate logic, propositional logic does not allow the use of quantifiers such as

Conclusion

Propositional logic is one of the cornerstones of artificial intelligence and computer science as a field as it forms a basis
upon which different algorithms can be developed. It is employed in several areas as the representation of knowledge,
reasoning, and digital circuits. However, these weaknesses do not detract from the fact that propositional logic is
effective when it comes to the creation of AI systems as well as their application. AI programming language has its
unique set of principles, syntax, as well as properties, and understanding them became crucial for individuals, engaged
in AI-related tasks.

Propositional logic plays an important role in Artificial Intelligence (AI) as it provides a formal framework for representing and reasoning about
knowledge. It is one of the simplest and most fundamental forms of logic used in AI systems. Here’s how it contributes to AI:

1. Knowledge Representation:

Propositional logic allows AI systems to represent knowledge in a structured and precise way. In propositional logic, knowledge is expressed using
statements (called propositions) that are either true or false. These propositions can represent facts about the world. For example, you can represent
"It is raining" as a proposition and work with this fact logically.

 Propositional logic helps define logical relationships between different facts and allows the AI to deduce new facts.
  Example: If "It is raining" is true and "If it rains, the ground will be wet" is true, propositional logic can conclude "The ground will be wet."

2. Reasoning and Inference:

Propositional logic is widely used for deductive reasoning in AI, where the system derives conclusions based on known rules and facts. AI systems
can use these logical rules to make inferences, check the validity of propositions, and solve problems.

 Inference: AI systems use logical operators (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) to combine propositions and draw conclusions. For instance, if the
system knows that "If the temperature is above 30°C, then the fan is ON" and "The temperature is 35°C", it can logically infer that "The fan
is ON."

3. Design of Rule-based Systems:

Many expert systems in AI rely on rule-based systems where the rules are expressed using propositional logic. These systems apply logical rules to
facts stored in a knowledge base to derive conclusions or perform actions.

 Example: A medical diagnostic system could use rules like "If the patient has a cough and fever, then the patient might have the flu" to aid
in diagnosis.

4. Search Problems:

AI uses propositional logic in search algorithms to explore the possible states of a system and find solutions. In planning and problem-solving,
propositional logic can represent the different states and actions available, enabling the AI to systematically search for a solution.

 For example, a robot navigating a maze can use propositional logic to represent each position and the conditions for moving from one
position to another.

5. Decision Making:

In decision-making processes, propositional logic helps AI evaluate different options based on logical conditions and make rational decisions. If an
AI needs to choose between different actions, propositional logic can represent the conditions under which one action is preferable over another.

Natural Deduction
Natural Deduction in AI

Natural deduction is a method to prove conclusions from given statements or premises using logical rules.

It helps in reasoning and decision-making in artificial intelligence

 It employs simple rules like Modus Ponens and Conjunction Elimination to prove statements.
 For example, if we know "It’s raining" and "If it’s raining, then the ground is wet," we can conclude
"The ground is wet."
 This reasoning process is essential in AI for making decisions and understanding complex scenarios,
enabling systems to infer new information from existing knowledge.
Axiomatic System
Semantic table

A semantic table (commonly known as a truth table) is a tool used in logic and artificial intelligence to
evaluate the truth or falsity of logical expressions based on the truth values of their components. It helps us
determine the outcome of a logical expression for all possible combinations of truth values (True or False) for
the variables involved.

Key Concepts:

 Logical Expressions: These are statements that use logical operators like AND ( ∧ ), OR ( ∨ ), NOT ( ¬ ), and
IMPLIES ( → ).
 Truth Values: The basic values, True (T) or False (F), assigned to each logical variable.
 Rows: Each row represents one possible combination of truth values for the variables.
 Columns: Each column represents the truth value of each variable and the final outcome of the logical
expression.

Purpose of a Semantic Table:

 Evaluate Logical Expressions: It helps determine when a logical expression is true or false based on the truth values of its
components.
 Check Validity of Arguments: By using truth tables, we can verify whether a logical argument is valid, i.e., whether the
conclusion follows from the premises in all cases.
 Identify Tautologies or Contradictions: A tautology is an expression that is always true, while a contradiction is always false.
Truth tables can help identify these.

How to Create a Semantic Table:

1. List the Variables: Identify all the propositional variables involved (e.g., A, B).
2. Determine All Possible Combinations: For each variable, list all possible combinations of truth values (True or False).
3. Evaluate the Expression: Use the truth values of the variables and logical connectives to calculate the truth value of the
entire expression for each combination.

Example:

Let’s evaluate the expression A∧B (A AND B):

A B A∧
B
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

In this table:

 When both A and B are true (T), the expression A∧B is true.
 In all other cases (when at least one of them is false), the expression is false.

Applications in AI:
 1. Boolean Logic: AI systems often rely on Boolean logic (true/false reasoning), and truth tables help evaluate logical
conditions in algorithms or rule-based systems.
2. Automated Theorem Proving: Truth tables can be used to verify whether a logical formula is always true (a tautology) or
find counterexamples.
3. Circuit Design: In AI applications related to hardware, truth tables are used to design and verify digital logic circuits.
4. Knowledge Representation: Truth tables help check the consistency and validity of knowledge representations in AI
systems.

Propositional logic in Artificial intelligence

Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the statements are made by propositions. A
proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or false. It is a technique of knowledge
representation in logical and mathematical form.

Example:
1. a) It is Sunday.
2. b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
3. c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)
4. d) 5 is a prime number.
Following are some basic facts about propositional logic:

o Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.

o In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we can use any symbol for
a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
o Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
o Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and logical connectives.
o These connectives are also called logical operators.
o The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional logic.
o Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
o A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also called a valid sentence.
o A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.
o A proposition formula which has both true and false values is called
o Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not propositions such as "Where is
Rohini", "How are you", "What is your name", are not propositions.

Syntax of propositional logic:

The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the knowledge representation. There
are two types of Propositions:

1. Atomic Propositions
2. Compound propositions

o Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of a single proposition
symbol. These are the sentences which must be either true or false.
Example:

1. a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.

2. b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.

o Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by combining simpler or atomic

propositions, using parenthesis and logical connectives.
Example:

1. a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."

2. b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."
Logical Connectives:
Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or representing a sentence logically. We
can create compound propositions with the help of logical connectives. There are mainly five connectives,
which are given as follows:

1. Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can be either Positive literal or
negative literal.

2. Conjunction: A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is called a conjunction.

Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,
P= Rohan is intelligent,
Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P∧ Q.

3. Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is called disjunction, where P

and Q are the propositions.

Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Doctor, so we can write it as P ∨ Q.

Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer",

4. Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication. Implications are also known as if-
then rules. It can be represented as
If it is raining, then the street is wet.
Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P → Q

5. Biconditional: A sentence such as P⇔ Q is a Biconditional sentence, example If I am

P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.

breathing, then I am alive

Following is the summarized table for Propositional Logic Connectives:

Truth Table:
In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of propositions in all possible scenarios. We can
combine all the possible combination with logical connectives, and the representation of these
combinations in a tabular format is called Truth table. Following are the truth table for all logical
connectives:
Precedence of connectives:
Just like arithmetic operators, there is a precedence order for propositional connectors or logical
operators. This order should be followed while evaluating a propositional problem. Following is the list of
the precedence order for operators:

interpretations. Such as ¬R∨ Q, It can be interpreted as (¬R) ∨ Q.

Note: For better understanding use parenthesis to make sure of the correct

Logical equivalence:
Logical equivalence is one of the features of propositional logic. Two propositions are said to be logically
equivalent if and only if the columns in the truth table are identical to each other.

Let's take two propositions A and B, so for logical equivalence, we can write it as A⇔B. In below truth
table we can see that column for ¬A∨ B and A→B, are identical hence A is Equivalent to B

Properties of Operators:
o Commutativity:
o P∧ Q= Q ∧ P, or
 o P ∨ Q = Q ∨ P.
o Associativity:
(P ∧ Q) ∧ R= P ∧ (Q ∧ R),
(P ∨ Q) ∨ R= P ∨ (Q ∨ R)
o
o
o Identity element:
P ∧ True = P,
P ∨ True= True.
o
o
o Distributive:
P∧ (Q ∨ R) = (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R).
P ∨ (Q ∧ R) = (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R).
o
o
o DE Morgan's Law:
¬ (P ∧ Q) = (¬P) ∨ (¬Q)
¬ (P ∨ Q) = (¬ P) ∧ (¬Q).
o
o
o Double-negation elimination:
o ¬ (¬P) = P.

Limitations of Propositional logic:

o We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional logic. Example:

o All the girls are intelligent.

o Some apples are sweet.
o Propositional logic has limited expressive power.
o In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms of their properties or logical relationships.
Resolution Refutation in Propositional Logic

Resolution is one kind of proof technique that works this way - (i) select two
clauses that contain conflicting terms (ii) combine those two clauses and (iii)
cancel out the conflicting terms.

For example we have following statements,

(1)If it is a pleasant day ,you will do strawberry picking

(2) If you are doing strawberry picking you are happy.

Above statements can be written in propositional logic like this –

(1)strawberry_picking ← pleasant
(2) happy ← strawberry_picking
And again these statements can be written in CNF like this –
(1)(strawberry_picking ∨~pleasant) 𝖠
(2) (happy ∨~strawberry_picking)

By resolving these two clauses and cancelling out the conflicting terms
'strawberry_picking' and '~strawberry_picking', we can have one new clause,
(3) ~pleasant ∨ happy How? See the figure on right.

When we write above new clause in infer or implies form, we have 'pleasant →
happy' or 'happy ← pleasant'
i.e. If it is a pleasant day you are happy.
First Order Logic
Logic programming
Logic programming is a programming paradigm that uses logic to represent facts and rules in artificial intelligence (AI). It's a style of
programming that uses logic to help machines reason and represent information.

Here are some key characteristics of logic programming:

 Logic and programming

Logic programming combines logic and programming, with logic detailing the rules and facts that the programming structure needs
to understand.

 Input rules

Logic programming requires a set of input rules that the code learns from, and then uses to infer an output for new related facts.

 Knowledge representation

Logic programming uses clausal form, a subset of first-order predicate logic, to represent knowledge.

 Inference

Logic programming uses the resolution inference system to manipulate knowledge.

 Applications

Logic programming can be used for many applications, including natural language processing, database management, expert
systems, and more.

One example of a logic programming language is Prolog, which is based on the ideas of logic programming
What is knowledge representation?
(human-machines-------

Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. Human knows things, which is
knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform various actions in the real world. But how machines
do all these things comes under knowledge representation and reasoning. Hence we can describe
Knowledge representation as following:

describes not only storing-learn from data…responsible--------

o It is a way which describes how we can represent knowledge in artificial intelligence. Knowledge
representation is not just storing data into some database, but it also enables an intelligent
machine to learn from that knowledge and experiences so that it can behave intelligently like a
human.
o It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that a computer can
understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve the complex real world problems such as
diagnosis a medical condition or communicating with humans in natural language.

Definition: What is Knowledge Representation in AI?

storing,organizing utilizing-mimic human-----------creation of ds and models-captures infomabout real world..making it

accesible for ai)

Knowledge Representation in AI refers to the way in which artificial intelligence systems store,
organize, and utilize knowledge to solve complex problems. It is a crucial aspect of AI, enabling
machines to mimic human understanding and reasoning.

Knowledge representation involves the creation of data structures and models that can efficiently
capture information about the world, making it accessible and usable by AI algorithms for decision-
making, inference, and learning.

What to Represent: (KF POEM)

Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to be represented in AI systems:

o Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars contains strings, trumpets are
brass instruments.
o Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
o Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how to do things.
o Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
o Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
o Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based agents is the knowledge base. It is
represented as KB. The Knowledgebase is a group of the Sentences (Here, sentences are used as a
technical term and not identical with the English language).
Knowledge: Knowledge is awareness or familiarity gained by experiences of facts, data, and situations.
Following are the types of knowledge in artificial intelligence:

Types of knowledge
Following are the various types of knowledge:

1. Declarative Knowledge:

o Declarative knowledge is to know about something.

o It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
o It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarativesentences.
o It is simpler than procedural language.
2. Procedural Knowledge

o It is also known as imperative knowledge.

o Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for knowing how to do something.
o It can be directly applied to any task.
o It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
o Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.
3. Meta-knowledge:

o Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-knowledge.

4. Heuristic knowledge:

o Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a filed or subject.

o Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences, awareness of approaches, and
which are good to work but not guaranteed.
5. Structural knowledge:

o Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.

o It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part of, and grouping of
something.
o It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or objects.
The relation between knowledge and intelligence (knowledge-in real word-intelligence
and also in AI-plays vital role in deostrating bheaviour of agents_Agent –act I/p-if have knowledge---language-
diagram)
Knowledge of real-worlds plays a vital role in intelligence and same for creating artificial intelligence.
Knowledge plays an important role in demonstrating intelligent behavior in AI agents. An agent is only
able to accurately act on some input when he has some knowledge or experience about that input.

Let's suppose if you met some person who is speaking in a language which you don't know, then how you
will able to act on that. The same thing applies to the intelligent behavior of the agents.

As we can see in below diagram, there is one decision maker which act by sensing the environment and
using knowledge. But if the knowledge part will not present then, it cannot display intelligent behavior.

AI knowledge cycle:
An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for displaying intelligent behavior:

o Perception
o Learning
o Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
o Planning
o Execution
The above diagram is showing how an AI system can interact with the real world and what components
help it to show intelligence. AI system has Perception component by which it retrieves information from its
environment. It can be visual, audio or another form of sensory input. The learning component is
responsible for learning from data captured by Perception comportment. In the complete cycle, the main
components are knowledge representation and Reasoning. These two components are involved in
showing the intelligence in machine-like humans. These two components are independent with each other
but also coupled together. The planning and execution depend on analysis of Knowledge representation
and reasoning.

Approaches to knowledge representation:

There are mainly four approaches to knowledge representation, which are givenbelow:

Simple Relational Knowledge:

 Description:
o This method represents knowledge using a relational model where facts about objects are stored in a
table format (like a database). The relationship between objects is represented systematically across
rows and columns.
 Characteristics:
o Best suited for representing static information where relationships between entities are predefined.
o No reasoning capabilities: Relational knowledge lacks the ability to make inferences or derive new facts
from the data.
o Data is organized in a tabular form, much like a relational database, where each row is a fact, and each
column holds a specific attribute.
 Advantages:
o Simplicity: Easy to store and retrieve data.
o Widespread use: Highly compatible with database systems, which are efficient at handling relational
data.
 Disadvantages:
 o Limited expressiveness: It cannot capture complex relationships or behaviors between objects.
o No inference: It’s only suitable for storing facts and doesn’t support deriving new knowledge.
 Example:
o A table representing a set of people and their occupations:

Name Age Occupation

Alice 30 Teacher
Bob 25 Engineer

o This setup allows for easy storage but doesn’t allow the system to deduce relationships beyond what's in
the table.

2. Inheritable Knowledge:

 Description:
o Knowledge is represented in a hierarchical structure, where entities (or classes) inherit properties and
behaviors from higher-level entities (or superclasses). This is also referred to as frame-based knowledge
or object-oriented knowledge representation.
 Characteristics:
o Inheritance: Subclasses inherit attributes and properties from their parent classes, enabling reuse and
efficiency in representing knowledge.
o Class hierarchy: Entities are structured in a hierarchical form, much like an ontology or taxonomy.
o Instance and class relations: Instances (objects) belong to classes and inherit properties of their
respective classes.
 Advantages:
o Reusability: Once a class is defined, its properties can be inherited by all its subclasses, reducing
redundancy.
o Efficient representation: Large amounts of knowledge can be represented concisely using inheritance.
o Structured: Hierarchies provide a clear structure that mirrors real-world relationships.
 Disadvantages:
o Rigid structure: The hierarchical structure can sometimes be too rigid and may not allow for flexibility in
representing certain types of knowledge.
o Inheritance conflicts: When multiple inheritance is used, conflicts can arise between inherited
properties.
 Example:
o A hierarchy for animals:

Animal
|
Mammal
|
Dog
|
Labrador (inherits properties from Dog, like "four legs", and adds specific
characteristics)

o In this example, the property "has four legs" is inherited from the Mammal class by the Dog and
Labrador subclasses.
3. Inferential Knowledge:

 Description:
o In inferential knowledge representation, facts and rules are represented using formal logic, such as first-
order logic (FOL) or predicate logic. This approach allows the system to infer new knowledge from the
existing knowledge base.
 Characteristics:
o Inference capabilities: The system can derive new information from existing facts using logical rules.
o Rules and predicates: Knowledge is represented using logical statements that consist of predicates,
functions, variables, and constants.
o Soundness and completeness: Formal logic ensures that the reasoning process is correct (sound) and
can generate all valid conclusions (complete).
 Advantages:
o Precision: Guarantees correctness in the derivation of facts.
o Expressiveness: It’s possible to represent complex relationships between entities.
o Inference: The system can draw conclusions based on known facts.
 Disadvantages:
o Computationally expensive: Logical inference can become slow for large knowledge bases.
o Complexity: It can be difficult to express certain types of knowledge, particularly those involving
uncertainty or dynamic behavior.
 Example:
o From the facts:
 "Marcus is a man."
 "All men are mortal."
o The system can infer:
 "Marcus is mortal."
o This is represented using predicate logic as:

∀x (man(x) → mortal(x))
man(Marcus)

o Using inference rules, the system can automatically deduce that Marcus is mortal.

4. Procedural Knowledge:

 Description:
o Procedural knowledge represents knowledge as sequences of instructions or rules that specify how to
perform certain actions or solve specific problems. It focuses on how-to knowledge rather than what
facts are true.
 Characteristics:
o If-Then rules: Commonly uses production rules (If-Then statements) to represent procedural knowledge.
o Action-oriented: Procedural knowledge focuses on performing tasks, making decisions, or solving
problems.
o Heuristics: It can incorporate domain-specific knowledge or heuristics, which are practical methods that
aren’t guaranteed to be optimal but work in practice.
  Advantages:
o Efficient for specific tasks: Procedural knowledge is great for task automation and solving specific, well-
defined problems.
o Domain-specific: It is well-suited to represent knowledge that depends on the context, such as how to
perform a specific task in a particular domain.
o Easy to represent heuristic knowledge: Allows encoding of expert-level strategies and rules.
 Disadvantages:
o Limited generalization: It’s difficult to generalize procedural knowledge to new tasks or domains.
o Not universally applicable: Not all knowledge can be represented in a procedural way, especially when
dealing with facts or static relationships.
 Example:
o In an expert system for medical diagnosis, a procedural rule might look like this:

If the patient has a fever and cough,

Then diagnose the patient with the flu.

o This If-Then rule provides specific instructions for diagnosing a patient based on their symptoms.

Summary:

 Simple Relational Knowledge: Best for basic data storage, with no inference capability.
 Inheritable Knowledge: Uses hierarchies and inheritance to represent relationships, with efficient reuse of
information.
 Inferential Knowledge: Based on formal logic, allowing systems to infer new facts from known data, ensuring
correctness and precision.
 Procedural Knowledge: Focuses on task-oriented rules and procedures, suitable for expert systems and heuristic
problem-solving.

Each approach has its specific use cases and trade-offs, making them suitable for different applications in AI
and knowledge representation.

Approaches to knowledge representation

There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as follows:

1. Logical Representation
2. Semantic Network Representation
3. Frame Representation
4. Production Rules
Semantic Network Representation (graph-relationship-herarchial and assiociation)

Definition: Semantic networks are a form of knowledge representation that uses a graph structure to depict
relationships between concepts. They are particularly useful for representing hierarchical and associative
knowledge.

Structure of Semantic Networks

1. Nodes:
o Represent entities, concepts, or objects.
o Can be concrete (like "Jerry") or abstract (like "Mammal").

2. Arcs:
o Represent the relationships between nodes.
o Can indicate various types of relationships, such as:
 IS-A: Indicates a hierarchical relationship (inheritance).
 PART-OF: Indicates a part-whole relationship.
 HAS-A: Indicates possession or attributes (e.g., "Jerry has a collar").
 RELATED-TO: Indicates a general relationship between concepts.

3. Types of Relations:
o IS-A Relation (Inheritance): Reflects subclass relationships. For example, "A cat IS-A mammal."
o Kind-Of Relation: Represents broader categorization. For example, "A mammal is a kind of animal."

Example of a Semantic Network

1. Jerry is a cat.
2. Jerry is a mammal
3. Jerry is owned by Priya.
4. Jerry is brown colored.
5. All Mammals are animal.
In the above diagram, we have represented the different type of knowledge in the form of nodes and arcs.
Each object is connected with another object by some relation.

Explanation of the Diagram

 Nodes:
o Animal: A top-level category.
o Mammal: A subtype of Animal (indicated by the IS-A relationship).
o Cat: A subtype of Mammal (also an IS-A relationship).
o Jerry: An instance of Cat.
o Priya: The owner of Jerry (linked through an "OwnedBy" relationship).
o Brown: A property associated with Jerry (color).

 Arcs:
o Arrows or lines connecting nodes indicate relationships. For example:
 "Jerry" IS-A "Cat"
 "Cat" IS-A "Mammal"
 "Mammal" IS-A "Animal"
 "Jerry" has an "OwnedBy" relationship with "Priya."
 "Jerry" has a property of "Brown."

Advantages of Semantic Networks

 Intuitive Representation: The graphical format makes it easy to visualize and understand relationships.
 Extensibility: New nodes and relationships can be added without major restructuring.
 Categorization: Allows for clear representation of hierarchical and categorical relationships. Semantic
networks are a natural representation of knowledge.
 Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.
 These networks are simple and easily understandable.
Drawbacks in Semantic representation:

1. Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we need to traverse the complete
network tree to answer some questions. It might be possible in the worst case scenario that after
traversing the entire tree, we find that the solution does not exist in this network.
2. Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015 neurons and links) to store the
information, but in practice, it is not possible to build such a vast semantic network.
3. These types of representations are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent quantifier, e.g., for
all, for some, none, etc.
4. Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.
5. These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.

Frame Representation

Definition: Frame representation is a data structure used in artificial intelligence to represent stereotypical
situations or entities. Frames are organized like records that consist of various attributes (called slots) and their
corresponding values (called slot values or facets).

Structure of Frames

1. Slots:
o Slots are attributes or properties of the frame, representing specific features of an entity.
o Each slot has a name and can store various types of values.
o Slots can be simple (storing basic values) or complex (storing other frames or lists).

2. Slot Values (Facets):

o Facets are additional properties or constraints associated with a slot.
o They define specific aspects of a slot, such as default values, value types, or constraints.
o Common facets include:
 IF-NEEDED facts: Indicate that certain information should be retrieved or computed only when
required.

3. Collection of Frames:
o Frames can be organized into a system where multiple frames are interconnected.
o This interconnected structure allows for more complex representations and facilitates inference.

Example 1: Book Frame Representation

Slots Values
Title Artificial Intelligence
Genre Computer Science
Author Peter Norvig
Edition Third Edition
Year 1996
Pages 1152

Example 2: Person Frame Representation

Let’s take the entity "Peter":

 Slots Values
Name Peter
Profession Engineer
Age 25
Marital Status Single
Weight 78 kg
City London
Country England

Advantages of Frame Representation

1. Structured Organization:
o Groups related data into coherent structures, making programming and understanding easier.

2. Flexibility:
o Frames can easily accommodate new slots for attributes or relations without significant changes to the
existing structure.

3. Default Values:
o Supports the inclusion of default values for attributes, simplifying data entry and retrieval.

4. Ease of Use:
o Provides a clear and visual representation of knowledge, making it intuitive for developers and users.

5. Interconnectedness:
o Allows for the representation of complex relationships through interconnected frames.

Disadvantages of Frame Representation

1. Inference Complexity:
o The inference mechanism can be less straightforward compared to other representations like logic-
based systems.

2. Generalization:
o Frames tend to generalize knowledge, which may lead to a lack of specificity in certain contexts.

3. Limited Inference Support:

o The inference capabilities of frame representation may not handle dynamic or uncertain knowledge
effectively.

4. Rigid Structure:
o While flexible, the structure can sometimes become too rigid when dealing with highly variable or
unstructured information.

Applications of Frame Representation

 Natural Language Processing: Frames are used to understand sentence structure and meaning by representing
entities and their attributes.
 Expert Systems: Frames facilitate the representation of knowledge in domains like medicine or finance, allowing
for better decision-making.
 Robotics and Computer Vision: Used to represent and interpret complex scenes or actions based on the
attributes of objects within those scenes.
 Ontology Development: Frames help build ontologies that define the relationships and properties of concepts
within a specific domain.