Chapter 5 Fluid Dynamic

Chapter 5
The Energy Equation and Its
Applications
(BERNOULLI’S EQUATION)
Bernoulli’s equation may be the most often used equation in fluid mechanics but it
is also the most often misused equation in fluid mechanics. In this section, that
famous equation will be derived and the restrictions required for its derivation will
be highlighted so that its misuse can be minimized. Before the equation is derived
let us state the five assumptions required: negligible viscous effects, constant
density, steady flow, the flow is along a streamline, and in an inertial reference
frame. Now, let us derive the equation.
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
Consider the motion of a fluid particle in a flow field in steady flow described in
detail in Chap.7. Applying Newton’s second law (which is referred to as the
conservation of linear momentum relation in fluid mechanics) in the s-direction on
a particle moving along a streamline gives in figure 8.1

Figure 8-1

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In regions of flow where net frictional forces are negligible, the significant forces
acting in the s-direction are the pressure (acting on both sides) and the component
of the weight of the particle in the s-direction (Fig. 5–23). Therefore, Eq. 5–35
becomes

Canceling dA from each term and simplifying,

Noting that V dV = 1/2 d(V2) and dividing each term by ρ gives

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Steady flow:

Since the last two terms are exact differentials. In the case of incompressible flow,
the first term also becomes an exact differential, and its integration gives

Steady, incompressible flow:

This is the famous Bernoulli equation, which is commonly used in fluid mechanics
for steady, incompressible flow along a streamline in inviscid Regions of flow. The
value of the constant can be evaluated at any point on the streamline where the
pressure, density, velocity, and elevation are known. The Bernoulli equation can
also be written between any two points on the same streamline as

The sum of the kinetic, potential, and flow energies of a fluid particle is constant
along a streamline during steady flow when the compressibility and frictional effects
are negligible.
Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the flow, kinetic, and potential energies
of a fluid particle along a streamline is constant. Therefore, the kinetic and potential
energies of the fluid can be converted to flow energy (and vice versa) during flow,
causing the pressure to change. This phenomenon can be made more visible by
multiplying the Bernoulli equation by the density

Each term in this equation has pressure units, and thus each term represents some
kind of pressure:

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 P is the static pressure (it does not incorporate any dynamic effects); it
represents the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid. This is the same as
the pressure used in thermodynamics and property tables.
 ρV 2/2 is the dynamic pressure; it represents the pressure rise when the fluid
in motion is brought to a stop isentropically.
 ρ g Z is the hydrostatic pressure, which is not pressure in a real sense since
its value depends on the reference level selected; it accounts for the elevation
effects, i.e., of fluid weight on pressure.
The sum of the static, dynamic, and hydrostatic pressures is called the total
pressure. Therefore, the Bernoulli equation states that the total pressure along a
streamline is constant. The sum of the static and dynamic pressures is called the
stagnation pressure, and it is expressed as

The stagnation pressure represents the pressure at a point where the fluid is brought
to a complete stop isentropically. The static, dynamic, and stagnation pressures are
shown in Figure8.2. When static and stagnation pressures are measured at a specified
location, the fluid velocity at that location can be calculated from

Figure 8.2

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Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line (EGL)

It is often convenient to represent the level of mechanical energy graphically using

heights to facilitate visualization of the various terms of the Bernoulli equation. This
is done by dividing each term of the Bernoulli equation by g to give

Each term in this equation has the dimension of length and represents some kind of
“head” of a flowing fluid as follows:
 P/ρg is the pressure head; it represents the height of a fluid column that
produces the static pressure P.
 V2/2g is the velocity head; it represents the elevation needed for a fluid to
reach the velocity V during frictionless free fall.
 z is the elevation head; it represents the potential energy of the fluid.
Also, H is the total head for the flow. Therefore, the Bernoulli equation can be
expressed in terms of heads as: The sum of the pressure, velocity, and elevation
heads along a streamline is constant during steady flow when the compressibility
and frictional effects are negligible

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EXAMPLE #1
Spraying Water into the Air
Water is flowing from a hose attached to a water
main at 400 kPa gage . A child places his thumb
to cover most of the hose outlet, causing a thin jet
of high-speed water to emerge. If the hose is held
upward, what is the maximum height that the jet
could achieve?

SOLUTION

Water from a hose attached to the water main is sprayed into the air. The
maximum height the water jet can rise is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The
flow exiting into the air is steady, incompressible, and irrotational (so that the

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Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2 The water pressurein the hose near the outlet is
equal to the water main pressure. 3 The surface tension effects are negligible. 4
The friction between the water and air is negligible. 5 The irreversibilities that may
occur at the outlet of the hose due to abrupt expansion are negligible.

Properties We take the density of water to be 1000 kg/m3.

Analysis This problem involves the conversion of flow, kinetic, and potential
energies to each other without involving any pumps, turbines, and wasteful
components with large frictional losses, and thus it is suitable for the use of the
Bernoulli equation. The water height will be maximum under the stated
assumptions. The velocity inside the hose is relatively low (V1 = 0) and we take
the hose outlet as the reference level (z1 =0). At the top of the water trajectory
V2 = 0, and atmospheric pressure pertains. Then the Bernoulli equation simplifies
to

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EXAMPLE #2
Water Discharge from a Large Tank
A large tank open to the atmosphere is
filled with water to a height of 5 m from
the outlet tap. A tap near the bottom of
the tank is now opened, and water flows
out from the smooth and rounded outlet.
Determine the water velocity at the
outlet.

SOLUTION A tap near the bottom of a tank is opened. The exit velocity of water
from the tank is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 the flow is incompressible and irrotational (except very close to the
walls). 2 The water drains slowly enough that the flow can be approximated as
steady (actually quasi-steady when the tank begins to drain).
Analysis This problem involves the conversion of flow, kinetic, and potential
energies to each other without involving any pumps, turbines, and wasteful
components with large frictional losses, and thus it is suitable for the use of the
Bernoulli equation. We take point 1 to be at the free surface of water so that
P1 =P atm (open to the atmosphere), V1 = 0 (the tank is large relative to the outlet),
and z1 = 5 m and z2 = 0 (we take the reference level at the center of the outlet). Also,
P2 = Patm (water discharges into the atmosphere). Then the Bernoulli equation
simplifies to

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Solving for V2 and substituting,

EXAMPLE #3
Siphoning Out Gasoline from a Fuel Tank
During a trip to the beach (Patm =1 atm = 101.3 kPa), a car runs out of gasoline, and
it becomes necessary to siphon gas out of the car of a Good Samaritan .The siphon
is a small-diameter hose, and to start the siphon it is necessary to insert one siphon
end in the full gas tank, fill the hose with gasoline via suction, and then place the
other end in a gas can below the level of the gas tank. The difference in pressure
between point 1 (at the free surface of the gasoline in the tank) and point 2 (at the
outlet of the tube) causes the liquid to flow from the higher to the lower elevation.
Point 2 is located 0.75 m below point 1 in this case, and point 3 is located 2 m above
point 1. The siphon diameter is 4 mm, and frictional losses in the siphon are to be
disregarded.

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Determine (a) the minimum time to withdraw 4 L of gasoline from the tank to the
can and (b) the pressure at point 3. The density of gasoline is 750 kg/m3.

SOLUTION Gasoline is to be siphoned from a tank. The minimum time it takes to

withdraw 4 L of gasoline and the pressure at the highest point in the system are to
be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 Even though the Bernoulli
equation is not valid through the pipe because of frictional losses, we employ the
Bernoulli equation anyway in order to obtain a best-case estimate. 3 The change in
the gasoline surface level inside the tank is negligible compared to elevations Z1 and
Z2 during the siphoning period.
Properties The density of gasoline is given to be 750 kg/m3.
Analysis (a) We take point 1 to be at the free surface of gasoline in the tank so that
P1 = Patm (open to the atmosphere), V1 = 0 (the tank is large relative to the tube

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diameter), and Z2 = 0 (point 2 is taken as the reference level). Also, P2 =Patm

(gasoline discharges into the atmosphere). Then the Bernoulli equation simplifies to

Solving for V2 and substituting

The cross-sectional area of the tube and the flow rate of gasoline are

Then the time needed to siphon 4 L of gasoline becomes

Δt = Q/V =4/0.0753 = 53.1 sec

(b) The pressure at point 3 can be determined by writing the Bernoulli equation
between points 2 and 3. Noting that V2 = V3 (conservation of mass), Z2 = 0,
and P2 = Patm,

Solving for P3 and substituting,

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EXAMPLE #4
Velocity Measurement by a Pitot tube
A piezometer and a Pitot tube are tapped into a horizontal water pipe, to measure
static and stagnation (static dynamic) pressures. For the indicated water column
heights, determine the velocity at the center of the pipe.

SOLUTION The static and stagnation pressures in a horizontal pipe are measured.
The velocity at the center of the pipe is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 Points 1 and 2 are close
enough together that the irreversible energy loss between these two points is
negligible, and thus we can use the Bernoulli equation.
Analysis We take points 1 and 2 along the centerline of the pipe, with point 1 directly
under the piezometer and point 2 at the tip of the Pitot tube. This is a steady flow
with straight and parallel streamlines, and the gage pressures at points 1 and 2 can
be expressed as
P1 = ρ g (h1 + h2)
P2 = ρ g(h1 + h2 + h3)
Noting that point 2 is a stagnation point and thus V2 = 0 and Z1 =Z2, the application
of the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 gives

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Substituting the P1 and P2 expressions gives

Solving for V1 and substituting,

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