Formulas - MathSc1

Functions: Polar coordinates (r, 𝜃): Cartesian coordinates:

𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑝(𝑥)
Rational functions 𝑓(𝑥) = where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are polynomials
𝑞(𝑥)

Strictly proper rational function: 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒(𝑝) < 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒(𝑞)

Improper rational function: 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒(𝑝) > 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒(𝑞)

Factorization of polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴 · (𝑥 − 𝑎) · (𝑥 − 𝑏) · (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 · (𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒)

repeated
distinct linear factors Irreducible quadratic factor
linear factor

Hyperbolic functions cosh(𝑥) = 12(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )

1
1
sinh(𝑥) = 2(𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )
1

sinh(𝑥)
tanh(𝑥) =
cosh(𝑥)

𝑥(𝑡)
Parametric representation Curve given by { ,𝑡 ∈ ℝ
𝑦(𝑡)

Implicit function Relation between x and y on the form 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0

Complex Numbers:

Cartesian form of 𝑧 ∈ ℂ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑗 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ

Imaginary unit, 𝑗 𝑗 2 = −1

Real part 𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒(𝑧)

Imaginary part 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑚(𝑧)

Modulus |𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

Argument arg(𝑧) = 𝜃, −𝜋 ≤ arg(𝑧) ≤ 𝜋

Polar form 𝑧 = 𝑟 ∙ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∙ 𝑗) or: 𝑧 = 𝑟∠𝜃 where 𝑟 = |𝑧|

Multiplication in polar form 𝑧1 · 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 (cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + sin(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) · 𝑗

 𝑧1 𝑟1
Division in polar form = (cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + sin(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) · 𝑗
𝑧2 𝑟2

Euler’s Formula 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 · 𝑗

Exponential form 𝑧 = 𝑟 · 𝑒 𝑗𝜃

sin/cos/hyperbolic functions cosh(𝑗𝑥) = cos(𝑥) sinh(𝑗𝑥) = 𝑗 sin (𝑥)

tanh(𝑗𝑥) = 𝑗 tan(𝑥) cos(𝑗𝑥) = cosh(𝑥) sin(𝑗𝑥) = 𝑗 sinh (𝑥)

𝑒 𝑗𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
2 2
Logarithm of complex number ln(𝑧) = ln(|𝑧|) + arg(𝑧) · 𝑗

Power of a complex number 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 · [cos(𝑛𝜃) + sin(𝑛𝜃) · 𝑗] (De Moivre’s Theorem)

Root of a complex number

1 1 𝜃 2𝜋𝑘 𝜃 2𝜋𝑘
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 · [cos ( + ) + sin ( + ) · 𝑗] , 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, … , 𝑛 − 1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

1 1 𝜃 2𝜋𝑘
( + )·𝑗
𝑧𝑛 = 𝑟𝑛 · 𝑒 𝑛 𝑛

Matrix algebra:
Matrix A of order (m,p) and matrix B of order (p,n)

Multiplication 𝑝 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑚
AB=C where 𝑐𝑖𝑗 = ∑𝑘=1 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘𝑗 for {
𝑗 = 1, … , 𝑛

Determinant for (2x2)-matrix 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎11 𝑎12

𝑨 = [𝑎 𝑎22 ] ⇒ det(𝑨) = |𝑎 𝑎22 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎21 𝑎12
21 21

+ − +⋯
Co-factors Sign pattern: [− + ⋯ ]
∶

The minor (the value): Determinant of remaining matrix when

removing row i and column j

Co-factor element 𝐴𝑖𝑗 ∶ Combine sign pattern and the minor

Determinant for (n x n)-matrix det(𝑨) = ∑𝑗 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝐴𝑖𝑗 = ∑𝑖 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝐴𝑖𝑗 (for any i or j)

Transpose matrix 𝑨𝑇 Rows of matrix A are turned into columns (or vice versa)

Adjoint matrix 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑨 = (𝑨𝑐𝑜 )𝑇

1
Inverse matrix 𝑨−1 = |𝑨| ∙ (𝑨𝑐𝑜 )𝑇 and 𝑨 𝑨−1 = 𝑨−1 𝑨 = 𝑰
 𝑎 𝑏 1 𝑑 −𝑏
Inverse matrix (order (2 x 2)) 𝑨=[ ] ⇒ 𝑨−1 = ∙[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 −𝑐 𝑎

System of linear equations:

𝑨𝒙=𝒃

(a) Non-homogenous and non-singular 𝒃 ≠ 𝟎 ∧ |𝑨| ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝒙 = 𝑨−1 𝒃 (unique solution)

(b) Homogenous and non-singular 𝒃 = 𝟎 ∧ |𝑨| ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝒙 = 𝑨−1 𝟎 = 𝟎 (trivial solution)

(c) Non-homogenous and singular no solutions or

𝒃 ≠ 𝟎 ∧ |𝑨| = 0 ⇒ {
infinitely many solutions

(d) Homogenous and singular 𝒃 = 𝟎 ∧ |𝑨| = 0 ⇒ infinitely many solutions

Characteristic polynomial 𝑐(𝜆) = |𝜆𝑰 − 𝑨|

Characteristic equation 𝑐(𝜆) = 0

Eigenvalues 𝜆: 𝑨 𝒙 = 𝜆 𝒙 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , 𝜆3 … that are solutions to 𝑐(𝜆) = 0

Differentiation:
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑓(𝑥) ′ 𝑓′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′(𝑥) 𝑑 𝑢 𝑣−𝑢
Quotient rule (𝑔(𝑥)) = 2 or (𝑣 ) = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥 𝑣2

′
Composite rule (Chain rule) (𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′(𝑥) or
𝑑𝑦
=
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥

′ 1 𝑑𝑦 1
Inverse rule (𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑓′(𝑦) or 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦

𝑑2 𝑓
2nd order derivative 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑓 (2) 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
For parametric representation = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 and = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑡
For implicit function 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑓
𝜕𝑥
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 =− 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Taylor polynomials:
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑎)
of nth degree about x = a 𝑝𝑛(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑥 − 𝑎)3
1! 2! 3!
𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎)
+⋯+ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛
𝑛!
Note: 𝑝𝑛 (𝑥) ≈ 𝑓(𝑥) when 𝑥 ≈ 𝑎
∞
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) 2 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎) 𝑛
Taylor series expansion, 𝑥 ≈ 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑥+ 𝑥 +⋯= ∑ 𝑥
1! 2! 𝑛!
𝑛=0

∞
Maclauren series expansion, 𝑓 ′ (0) 𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥+ 𝑥 +⋯= ∑ 𝑥
𝑥≈0 1! 2! 𝑛!
𝑛=0

Functions of 2 or more
variables: 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑒𝑡𝑐.

𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑓
Partial derivatives = [ ] = [ ]
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝜕𝑓
𝜕𝑥
= 𝑓1′ (𝑥, 𝑦) ~ slope on the surface in x-axis direction

𝜕𝑓
= 𝑓2′ (𝑥, 𝑦) ~ slope on the surface in y-axis direction
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
Directional derivative 𝑚𝛼 (𝑥, 𝑦) = cos(𝛼) + sin (𝛼)
(Slope in any direction 𝛼) 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Chain rule 𝑥(𝑠, 𝑡)

𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) } ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝐹(𝑠, 𝑡)
𝑦(𝑠, 𝑡)

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
Then: = + = +
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑡

𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓
2nd order partial derivatives 𝜕𝑥 2
= ( )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
~ info about curvature on surface in x-axis direction

𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓
𝜕𝑦 2
= ( )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
~ info about curvature on surface in y-axis direction

𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
= ( )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
~ increase in slope in y-direction when moving in x-axis direction
 𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
= ( )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
~ increase in slope in x-direction when moving in y-axis direction

𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
= 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 ~ the cross partials are equal (for all relevant functions)

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑑𝑢 = ∆𝑥 + ∆𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
The differential (2 variables) 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
∆𝑢 ≈ ∆𝑥 + ∆𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Ordinary differential
equations:
𝑑𝑥
Separation of the variables ODE(1): 𝑔(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑡) ⇒ ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ℎ(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 𝑥 1 1 𝑥
ODE(2): = 𝑓( ) ⇒ ∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 , with 𝑦 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑡 𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑦 𝑡 𝑡

𝑑𝑥
ODE on exact form ODE(3): 𝑝(𝑡, 𝑥) + 𝑞(𝑡, 𝑥) = 0 ⇒ ℎ(𝑡, 𝑥) = 𝑐
𝑑𝑡
𝜕ℎ 𝜕ℎ
where = 𝑝(𝑡, 𝑥) and = 𝑞(𝑡, 𝑥)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑞
Test for existence of the function ℎ(𝑡, 𝑥): 𝜕𝑡
= 𝜕𝑥

𝑑𝑥
First order linear ODE ODE(4): + 𝑝(𝑡) ∙ 𝑥 = 𝑟(𝑡) ⇒ 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑘(𝑡) ∙ ∫ 𝑒 𝑘(𝑡) ∙ 𝑟(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

where 𝑘(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑝(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

Bernoulli ODE 𝑑𝑥
ODE(5): + 𝑝(𝑡) ∙ 𝑥 = 𝑞(𝑡) ∙ 𝑥 𝛼
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦
⇒ + (1 − 𝛼)𝑝(𝑡)𝑦 = (1 − 𝛼)𝑞(𝑡) , where 𝑦 = 𝑥 1−𝛼
𝑑𝑡

which is solved as an ODE(4)

Numerical solutions:

𝑑𝑥
Euler’s method to 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑓(𝑡, 𝑥) 𝑡𝑛+1 = 𝑡𝑛 + ℎ

𝑋𝑛+1 = 𝑋𝑛 + ℎ · 𝑓(𝑡𝑛 , 𝑋𝑛 )

Runge-Kutta method 1 1
(of 2nd order) 𝑋𝑛+1 = 𝑋𝑛 + ℎ · 𝑓(𝑡𝑛 + 2ℎ, 𝑋𝑛 + 2ℎ · 𝑓(𝑡𝑛 , 𝑋𝑛 )
Differential operator Φ[𝑓(𝑡)] = expression where one or more derivatives of 𝑓 appear

Linear differential operator 𝐿[𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑥2 ] = 𝑎𝐿[𝑥1 ] + 𝑏𝐿[𝑥2 ]

Homogenous linear ODE 𝐿[𝑥(𝑡)] = 0

Non-homogenous linear ODE 𝐿[𝑥(𝑡)] = 𝑓(𝑡)

Linearity principle 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 solve 𝐿[𝑥(𝑡)] = 0

} ⇒ 𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑥2 is a solution
𝐿[𝑥(𝑡)] is linear

In addition:

The ODE is of order 𝑝 General solution:

} ⇒ 𝐴 𝑥 +𝐴 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝐴 𝑥
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑝 are independent solutions 1 1 2 2 𝑝 𝑝

Independent functions ∑ 𝑘𝑖 ∙ 𝑓𝑖 (𝑡) = 0 for all 𝑡, only when 𝑘1 = 𝑘2 = ⋯ = 𝑘𝑝 = 0

𝑖=1

General solution to 𝐿[𝑥] = 𝑓(𝑡) ODE(7):

x ∗ : Any solution to 𝐿[𝑥] = 𝑓(𝑡)
} ⇒ General solution: x ∗ + 𝑥𝑐
𝑥𝑐 : The general solution to 𝐿[𝑥] = 0

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Linear, constant coefficient ODE ODE(6): 𝑎 2
+𝑏 + 𝑐𝑥 = 0 ,𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Characteristic equation 𝑎𝑚2 + 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑐 = 0 with solutions 𝑚1 and 𝑚2

General solution to ODE(6) 𝑚1 ≠ 𝑚2 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑚1 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑚2 𝑡

𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑘 ∶ 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 ∙ 𝑡 ∙ 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑘𝑡

𝑚1 , 𝑚2 ∈ ℂ ∶ 𝑚1 = 𝛼 + 𝛽𝑗 and 𝑚2 = 𝛼 − 𝛽𝑗 then
(The method can readily be
generalized to higher order ODE’s) 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 ( 𝐶 · cos(𝛽𝑡) + 𝐷 · sin(𝛽𝑡))