Fire

Management today
Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

LEARNING TO
LIVE WITH FIRE

United States Department of Agriculture

Forest Service
Fire Management Today is published by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.
The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of
the public business required by law of this Department.

Fire Management Today is for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, at:
Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov Phone: 202-512-1800 Fax: 202-512-2250
Mail: Stop SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-0001

Fire Management Today is available on the World Wide Web at <http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/fire_new/fmt/>.

Ann M. Veneman, Secretary April J. Baily

U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager

Dale Bosworth, Chief Robert H. “Hutch” Brown, Ph.D.

Forest Service Managing Editor

Jerry Williams, Director Madelyn Dillon

Fire and Aviation Management Editor

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Management Today.
 Fire
Management today
Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

On the Cover: CONTENTS

Living With Fire Isn’t So Simple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Dale Bosworth
A Changing Fire Environment: The Task Ahead . . . . . . . 7
Jerry Williams
Got Clearance?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Jon P. Agner
Testing for Deck Material Flammability. . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Jim Wheeler
Is Florida’s Prescribed Fire Program Something
Llamas graze calmly in a field
To Get Choked Up About? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
as a wildfire draws dangerous­
Bruce Harvey and Susan Fitzgerald
ly close to a home on the Deer
Creek Ranch outside Selma, A Tribute to Engine 805 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
OR. For a discussion of the Sara Patterson
challenges inherent in living
“The Air Was Fire”: Fire Behavior at Peshtigo in 1871 . 20
with fire, see the articles by
Hutch Brown
Dale Bosworth and Jerry
Williams beginning on page 4. Wildland Fire Decisionmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Photo: Thomas Iraci, USDA Nick Greear
Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Region, Portland, Wildland Fires in Botswana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
OR, 2002. Witness Mojeramane
The Fire Below: Suppression Tactics From Above . . . . . 37
Mike Benefield
Improving a Wildland Fire Situation Analysis
The FIRE 21 symbol (shown below and on the Through GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
cover) stands for the safe and effective use of
wildland fire, now and throughout the 21st cen­ Matthew Galyardt, LLoyd Queen, and Laura Ward
tury. Its shape represents the fire triangle (oxy­
gen, heat, and fuel). The three outer red triangles
represent the basic functions of wildland fire
The Pocket PC Can Increase Your Productivity . . . . . . 44
organizations (planning, operations, and aviation Ed Martin
management), and the three critical aspects of
wildland fire management (prevention, suppres­
sion, and prescription). The black interior repre­
A New Tool for Mopup and Other Fire
sents land affected by fire; the emerging green Management Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
points symbolize the growth, restoration, and
sustainability associated with fire-adapted Bill Gray
ecosystems. The flame represents fire itself as an
ever-present force in nature. For more informa­ Developing the Fire Service Workforce
tion on FIRE 21 and the science, research, and
innovative thinking behind it, contact Mike Through Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Apicello, National Interagency Fire Center, Joette Borzik
208-387-5460.

SHORT FEATURES
Websites on Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Guidelines for Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Firefighter and public safety is
our first priority. Annual Photo Contest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

3
LIVING WITH FIRE ISN’T SO SIMPLE*
Dale Bosworth

W
ould that it were so simple.
Some would have us believe A policy of allowing all fires to burn would be just
that if we just stop fighting as flawed as the old policy of putting them all out.
fire, everything will be fine (Stahl
2004). Never mind the people who
will lose their homes—they suppos­ leaf pine in the South (Bonnicksen tems. We stress homeowner fire
edly deserve it. Never mind the 2000). safety programs, but we also pro­
habitat loss for plants and ani­ tect the surrounding landscape.
mals—nature supposedly knows At the Forest Service, we learned
best. Just look, they say, at how the the lesson long ago and ended the We do that because a home is more
American Indians lived with fire. war against fire. Today, we work than just a house. Your home is the
with fire to promote resource diver­ community you belong to. It’s the
Working With Fire sity and restore fire-adapted ecosys­ surrounding landscape with every­
Indeed, let’s look. Near Seeley Lake,
MT, where the spruce–fir forest nat­
urally supports fires that are large
but rare, researchers found a site
where fires historically were far
more frequent than nature would
explain (Barrett 2004). Indians
using the site had burned the sur­
rounding woods for centuries, per­
haps to keep big fires from wiping
out their camps in a drought. The
USDA Forest Service has done
something similar at Seeley Lake
by thinning to protect the local
community.

Apparently, these Indians did not

believe that nature knows best. In
fact, Indians nationwide used fire
and other technologies to shape
ecosystems to their liking (Boyd
1999; Pyne 1982; Whitney 1994;
Stewart 2002; Williams 2002,
2003). Does that mean they were at
war with nature? No. They worked
with nature for self-protection and
resource diversity. Many ecosystems
flourished as a result, such as long-

Dale Bosworth is the Chief of the USDA

Forest Service, Washington, DC.
The Hayman Fire in Colorado burning dangerously close to several homes near Woodland
* The article appeared as a guest editorial in Wildland Park on June 18, 2002. Photo: Cindy Nowack, Fremont–Winema National Forest,
Firefighter 8:2 (February 2004): 7, 9. Klamath Ranger District, Klamath Falls, OR, 2002.

Fire Management Today

4
thing it gives you, such as scenic would be just as flawed as the old problem. When fire danger indexes
beauty and clean water from your policy of putting them all out. are extreme, we usually decide to
municipal watershed. If you’ve Three things keep us from using suppress fires that we might other­
saved your house in a community fire more: wise use to restore ecosystems.
devastated by fire—in a landscape • The forests that need fire the Our fire management plans never
blackened by fire—you’ve still lost most, such as ponderosa pine in say, “Use fire no matter what.”
your home. • We use fire only within accept­
able limits of social, economic,
Reconciling such needs in the con­ Our policy is to use fire and ecological risk. For example,
text of fire-adapted forests and where we can and if a fire would severely damage
grasslands is central to our fire soils or destroy habitat for endan­
management today. Sometimes that
suppress fire where we gered species, we suppress it. Our
means using fire in the woods; must. policy is to use fire where we can
sometimes it means suppressing it. and suppress fire where we must.
Through prescribed and wildland
the West, are often in no condi­
fire use, the Forest Service actually The risks are compounded by the
tion to burn. They are too over­
burns more acres on national forest growing wildland/urban interface.
crowded with vegetation. Under
land than we suppress. Picture an island in a sea of gaso­
such conditions, simply letting
line. If you touch a match 10 or 20
fires go could have catastrophic
Managing Risks results for communities and
miles (16–32 km) out, it might
Do we burn enough? Maybe not, seem like a long way away, but the
ecosystems alike.
but it’s not as simple as that. A fire will still burn the island. Many
• Prolonged drought in many parts
policy of allowing all fires to burn forest communities are like that
of the country contributes to the

If you’ve saved your house in a community devastated by fire, you’ve still lost your home. This mobile home park was almost totally
destroyed by the Rodeo–Chediski Fire on the Apache–Sitgreaves National Forest in Arizona. Photo: Thomas Iraci, USDA Forest Service,
Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR, 2002.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

5
today. Surrounded by overgrown That will take some work. Nation­ can while creating new fire use
forests, they are in a veritable sea of wide, hundreds of millions of acres opportunities through ecological
fuels. Remote fires can easily roar are at risk from wildland fires that restoration. It’s the best way to
out of the backcountry, like Cerro could compromise human safety keep our firefighters safe, our
Grande did in 2002. That same year, and ecosystem integrity (Schmidt ecosystems healthy, and our fellow
Hayman made a 16-mile (26-km) and others 2002). Not every acre Americans well served.
run in a single day. Fire managers can be treated, nor should it be;
must weigh such risks before decid­ strategically placed treatments will References
ing to use fire in the backcountry. protect and restore most values at Barrett, S.W. 2004. Case study: Indian-
risk. Still, the needed treatments influenced fire regimes. Fire Management
Today. 64(2): 35.
The Right Kind of Fire will be expensive. The question for Bonnicksen, T.M. 2000. America’s ancient
Our aim is to restore the right kind Americans is this: Do we as a forests. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
of fire to the land. Often, that Nation want to pay sooner for treat­ Boyd, R.T., ed. 1999. Indians, fire and the
ments, or later—and vastly more— land in the Pacific Northwest. Corvallis,
means first thinning overgrown OR: Oregon State University Press.
forests, then waiting for the right in human lives, suppression costs, Pyne, S.J. 1982. Fire in America. Princeton,
weather conditions before igniting and damage to homes, communi­ NJ: Princeton University Press.
ties, and wildland resources? Schmidt, K.M.; Menakis, J.P.; Hardy, C.C.;
a burn. If we can restore healthy Hann, W.J.; Bunnell, D.L. 2002.
landscape conditions, then we can Development of coarse-scale spatial data
better control the results of a fire— No Easy Answers for wildland fire and fuel management.
Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–87. Fort Collins,
yes, even in a drought. We’ve There are no easy answers. CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky
shown it again and again (see Managing wildland fires is as com­ Mountain Research Station.
“Success Stories” on the World plex as the ecosystems that Stahl, A. 2004. Our Hundred Years War.
Wildland Firefighter. 8(1): 7, 9.
Wide Web at <http://www.fireplan. Americans have entrusted to our Stewart, O.C. 2002. Forgotten fires: Native
gov/content/home/>). care as public land managers. Americans and the transient wilderness.
Decades ago, we moved beyond Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma
Our first priority, of course, is fire­ simplistic solutions when we Press.
Whitney, G.G. 1994. From coastal wilder­
fighter and public safety, but letting dropped the old policy of fire exclu­ ness to fruited plain. Cambridge, UK:
nature take its own course would sion. We cannot afford to go back Cambridge University Press.
not enhance human safety. Instead, now: A simple policy of not fighting Williams, G.W. 2002. Aboriginal use of fire.
In: Kay, C.E.; Simmons, R.T., eds.
it would heighten the lethal risk fires is simply not an option. Wilderness and political ecology. Salt
from huge fires like Biscuit in 2002 Lake City, UT: The University of Utah
or Cedar in 2003. The best way to For our policy to be sustainable, we Press: 179–214.
Williams, G.W. 2003. References on the
reduce the risk is to take some of must face today’s fire environment American Indian use of fire in ecosys­
the heat out of the ecosystem in all of its social, economic, and tems. Unpublished manuscript and bibli­
before these fires get started. ecological complexity. That means ography on file at the USDA Forest
continuing to suppress fire where Service, Washington Office, Washington,
DC. ■
we must and using fire where we

Fire Management Today

6
A CHANGING FIRE ENVIRONMENT:
THE TASK AHEAD*
Jerry Williams

W
ildland fire management
today is a high-stakes busi­
ness. At no time in our his­
tory have greater areas been at
more risk from wildland fires that
could compromise human safety
and ecosystem integrity. Some 132
million acres of national forest land
alone are classified at high or mod­
erate risk (Schmidt and others
2002) (see the sidebar on page 8).
More than 2 billion acres (800 mil­
lion ha) of State, private, and other
Federal lands are similarly classi­
fied at risk.

The results are palpable. In the past

few years, we’ve witnessed record-
setting wildfires, such as the
October 2003 fires in southern View of the 2002 Hayman Fire, the largest in Colorado history to date. Photo: Steven
California, the worst in California Smith, Colorado Springs Fire Department, Colorado Springs, CO, 2002.
history. In a matter of weeks, 14
major fires burned 750,043 acres • Some contended that fire protec­
(300,017 ha), cost 24 lives, and We can improve tion just isn’t good enough. They
destroyed 3,710 homes (CDF/USDA preparedness and maintained that faster attack,
FS 2004). Utilities and other basic more reliance on military assets,
suppression, but until
infrastructure were destroyed, and better coordination and commu­
damage to private property exceed­
we better manage fuel nications, and improved pre­
ed $2 billion. The disruption to buildups and growth in paredness can keep fires from
lives, communities, and economies the wildland/urban getting so big and dangerous.
can scarcely be imagined. interface, the gains will • Others, including me, see the
problem in broader terms. Yes,
be marginal. we can improve preparedness,
Afterwards, the Governor of
California appointed a commission coordination, command, and
to examine the causes and make cooperation, but until we better
Two Schools of manage fuel buildups and growth
recommendations to avoid similar
losses in the future. I was named to
Thought in the wildland/urban interface,
that commission. Why have wildfires gotten so large, the gains will be marginal at best.
destructive, and dangerous? Why, The condition of forests and
in an era when fire protection is grasslands, especially across
Jerry Williams is the National Director of better than ever, are wildfires set­ much of the West, predisposes
Fire and Aviation Management for the ting records for suppression costs, many areas to large, damaging
USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC. natural resource and private prop­ wildfires. Unconstrained growth
erty losses, and environmental in the wildland/urban interface
* The article is based on a presentation by the author at
the National Interagency Fuels Workshop on February damages? Two schools of thought only exacerbates the problem.
4, 2004, in Albuquerque, NM.
emerged on the commission:

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

7
Of the 10,000 wildfires that the Fire Regimes and Condition Classes
USDA Forest Service suppresses
each year on average, only about Schmidt and others (2002) pub- respectively, mixed and stand­
100—1 percent—account for more lished national maps reflecting replacement fire severity.
than 95 percent of the acres burned coarse-scale data on the condi- • Fire regime V has very long fire
and nearly 85 percent of total sup­ tion of vegetation and fuels. The return intervals (greater than
pression expenditures. The fire purpose was to help land man- 200 years) and stand-replace­
siege of 2003 was a prime example, agers answer three basic ques- ment fire severity.
and it occurred in a State with the tions: • In condition class 1, fire
best fire protection in the Nation. regimes are within their histori­
Next to the Forest Service, Calif­ 1. How do current vegetation and cal range, and the risk of losing
ornia arguably fields the largest fuels differ from those that key ecosystem components is low.
wildland fire service in the world. existed historically? • In condition classes 2 and 3,
The California Department of 2. Where are fuel accumulations fire regimes have been, respec­
Forestry and Fire Protection, the higher than they were histori- tively, moderately and severely
Federal agencies, and the county cally? altered from their historical
and local authorities collectively 3. On a coarse scale, what areas range, and the risk of losing
spend more than $3.5 billion annu­ are highest priority for treat- key ecosystem components is,
ally on fire protection in southern ment? respectively, moderate and
California. Yet even moderate Santa severe.
Ana wind conditions in October Mapping was by fire regime and
2003 drove fires that burned more condition class, as defined by the Schmidt and others (2002) found
acres and caused more damage USDA Forest Service (2000). that almost 132 million acres (53
than ever before in the region. In brief: million ha) of national forest land
across all fire regimes were in
When one of the biggest and best • Fire regimes I and II have short condition classes 2 and 3. Of
fire services in the world is not big fire return intervals (0–35 these lands, the Forest Service
enough, it would appear that get­ years) and, respectively, low and has identified fire regimes I and II
ting more, bigger, and better fire stand-replacement fire severity. as highest priority for treatment,
protection is not the solution. • Fire regimes III and IV have or about 73 million acres (29 mil-
Instead, we need to focus on what moderately long fire return lion ha).
causes the huge fires we’re getting. intervals (35–100+ years) and,
I am convinced that the key is “tak­
ing some heat out of the ecosys­
tem” by reducing fuel loadings.
We need fire protection programs that are
Difficult Fire ecologically appropriate, socially acceptable, and
Environment economically feasible.
Land stewardship is a core value for
the Forest Service’s Fire and
Aviation Management staff. Eighty The same observations were later We work in a difficult environment.
years ago, a Forest Service employ­ made in other long-needle pine Volatile fuel conditions dominate
ee in the Southwest began shaping ecosystems (Carle 2002)—by entire landscapes. Public expecta­
a powerful new concept he later Harold Weaver in Oregon, Harold tions for protection have never been
called a land ethic. Writing in the Biswell in California, Herbert higher, yet “naturalness” values and
Journal of Forestry, Aldo Leopold Stoddard in the Southern States, public concern about forest appear­
(1924) observed changes in the M.L. Heinselmann in the Lake ance are equally important. Even
forests due to overgrazing and fire States, and, more recently, Stephen though risk is high, political toler­
exclusion. His observations were in Arno and others in the Rocky ance for “mistakes” is low. We need
ponderosa pine—what today we call Mountains. It’s time for us now, as fire protection programs that are
fire regime I (see the sidebar). stewards of the land, to act on these ecologically appropriate, socially
observations. acceptable, and economically feasible.

Fire Management Today

8
 We need a new set of principles and
practices:

1. Establish and use fire danger

and stand condition risk thresh­
olds to govern the use of fire.
Remember, our goal isn’t simply
to put fire back into the forest.
Our goal is to restore the right
kind of fire, consistent with the
ecological dynamics of the par­
ticular forest type. In many
places, we need to mechanically
treat before burning in order to
mitigate the risks of fire use,
even if it costs more money.
A difficult fire environment. Telltale snags attest to the dense pine fuels that fed the 2002 Don’t let pressures to reduce
Rodeo–Chediski Fire on its run through a trailer park in Overgaard, AZ. Photo: Tom treatment costs put you on a
Schafer, Show Low, AZ, 2002.
pathway to disaster. Establish
limits of prescribed fire use
Focus on Our based on established risk thresh­
Objective Our goal is to restore olds, and stick to them!
In this context, it is important to the right kind of fire, 2. Adopt a national coordination
focus on our objective. Our stew­ consistent with the system that mobilizes for fire use
ardship objective is to restore and ecological dynamics of opportunities like we mobilize
maintain resilient, diverse, and for wildfire threats. Burning
the particular forest windows open and close, and
functioning fire-adapted ecosys­
tems. By definition, fire-prone type. opportunities to use fire can
forests and grasslands in this condi­ quickly fade away. When a unit
tion are safer, more sustainable, has the opportunity to burn, it
healthier, and more productive. We should not be limited by the
prescribe-burn, thin trees, and har­ Principles and resources at hand; it should get
vest timber as the means to an end: Practices all the resources it needs to capi­
healthy, resilient fire-adapted In fiscal year 1995 (FY1995), the talize on the window of opportu­
ecosystems. Forest Service treated less than nity. If we do anything less, we
600,000 acres (240,000 ha) for haz­ will likely fall short in the job
But we must not confuse means ardous fuels (USDA Forest Service ahead.
with ends. On principle, we don’t 1999). By FY2001, with the help of 3. Plan for contingencies. If burn­
undertake treatment activities just the National Fire Plan, the Forest ing windows are closed in one
to get “black acres,” to meet a thin­ Service and U.S. Department of the part of the country but open in
ning target, or to move logs. We Interior together were treating another, we need to have coordi­
undertake these activities, first and more than 2 million acres (800,000 nation and budget systems in
foremost, to improve the condition ha) (NFP 2004). Soon, with the place to rapidly move targets and
of the forest. We still meet targets help of new authorities in the dollars. With windows of oppor­
and furnish wood products, but the Healthy Forests Restoration Act tunity as narrow as they are, we
reason that we burn, thin, or har­ (see the sidebar), we might be need to be quick on our feet at
vest is, first and foremost, to jointly treating some 4 million these treatment scales.
restore and maintain resilient, acres (1.6 million ha) per year. 4. Don’t let more trouble pile on.
diverse, and functioning fire-adapt­ That’s a big jump, and it should Ironically, we manage much of
ed forests. We do these things prompt us to revisit the way we do the land that is in condition class
because they are the right means to business. 3 (see the sidebar on page 8)—
our end.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

9
 for example, dense ponderosa
pine—precisely for that condi­
tion. Especially in dry forest
types, look for opportunities to
amend land and resource man­
agement plans where the risk of
losing the desired resource con­
dition exceeds the probability of
sustaining it.
5. Do treatments first where we
have willing partners and want­
ing publics. We need to avoid
the high costs that come with
“going it alone.”

Favorable Conditions
You’ve worked hard, and we’ve
come a long way. Today, there is
broader recognition than ever that
the wildfire problem in this country
will be won or lost on the fuels
front. There is a deeper public
understanding of the ecological
dynamics of fire-prone ecosystems
and a growing public awareness
that restoring fire-adapted ecosys­
tems to something more like their
historical condition is key to their
long-term health and resilience—
and to public safety. Congress is
with us—our budget for hazardous
fuels reduction in FY2005 showed a
healthy bump.
Evening ignition on the Blue Sky prescribed burn unit, Hart Mountain National Wildlife
Of course, we still have a way to go. Refuge, OR. Through such treatments, Federal agencies must prove their worth as public
There are places where we could land stewards. Photo: John Wood, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Klamath Basin National
use more people and benefit from Wildlife Refuge Complex, Tulelake, CA, 2002.
more money. Sometimes, compet­
ing values will confound us and
regulatory controls will slow us When a unit has the opportunity to burn, it should
down. But despite the challenges get all the resources it needs to capitalize on the
ahead, we need to “gut up” and window of opportunity.
deliver!

Make no mistake. Now that the careful stewards we say we are. favorable. Broad segments of our
Healthy Forests Restoration Act has They are watching to see, given the publics support the task before us.
passed, people are watching to see higher funding we have gotten in So do the Administration and
whether the Federal agencies can an era of tight budgets and Congress. I don’t know that there
move promise into practice. They increased accountability, whether has ever been a better alignment of
are watching to see whether we can we can do what we say we will do. policies, budgets, and support for
demonstrate, by way of what we the work ahead.
leave on the land, that we are the The conditions for success are
Let’s get it done!
Fire Management Today
10
 Healthy Forests Restoration Act, Title I
In August 2002, prompted by reaching legislation affecting – Condition class 3, or
record-breaking fires in Arizona, Federal forest management since – Condition class 2, fire
Colorado, New Mexico, and the 1970s. regimes I–III;*
Oregon, the President announced • Has ecosystems or resources
the Healthy Forests Initiative. It Title I limits requirements for envi­ threatened by—
included a call for legislation “to ronmental analysis and streamlines – Blowdown or other storm
further accomplish more timely, procedures for administrative damage, or
efficient, and effective implemen­ appeals on projects for reducing – An insect or disease infesta­
tation of forest health projects” hazardous fuels. However, the proj­ tion; or
(CEQ 2002). ects must be on Federal land in an • Contains habitat for threatened
area that: and endangered species.
In December 2003, prompted by
record-breaking fires in southern • Is in or near the wildland/urban Priority is given to projects
California, a bipartisan majority interface; designed to protect communities
in Congress passed the Healthy • Affects a municipal watershed and municipal watersheds.
Forests Restoration Act. Title I and is in—
contains perhaps the most far- * For brief descriptions, see the sidebar on page 8.

References Now that the Healthy Forests Restoration Act has

Carle, D. 2002. Burning questions: passed, people are watching to see whether the
America’s fight with nature’s fire.
Westport, CT: Praeger. Federal agencies can move promise into practice.
CDF/USDA FS (California Department of
Forestry and Fire Protection/USDA Forest
Service). 2004. California Fire Siege Flader, S.L.; Callicott, J.B, eds. The river Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–87. Fort Collins,
2003—The story. Website of the mother of God and other essays by CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky
<http://www.fire.ca.gov/php/fire_er_siege. Aldo Leopold. Madison, WI: University of Mountain Research Station.
php>. Wisconsin Press: 114–122.] USDA Forest Service. 1999. Report of the
CEQ (Council on Environmental Quality). NFP (National Fire Plan). 2004. Website Forest Service: Fiscal year 1998.
2002. Healthy forests: An initiative for <http://www.fireplan.gov/reports/363-371­ Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service.
wildfire prevention and stronger commu­ en.pdf>. USDA Forest Service. 2000. Protecting peo­
nities. August 22. Washington, DC: Schmidt, K.M.; Menakis, J.P.; Hardy, C.C.; ple and sustaining resources in fire-
Council on Environmental Quality. Hann, W.J.; Bunnell, D.L. 2002. adapted ecosystems: A cohesive strategy.
Leopold, A. 1924. Grass, brush, timber, and Development of coarse-scale spatial data October 13. Washington, DC: USDA
fire in southern Arizona. Journal of for wildland fire and fuel management.
Forestry. 22(6): 1–10. [Reprinted in:

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

11
GOT CLEARANCE?
Jon P. Agner

L
ess is more. That’s the philoso­
phy behind Got Clearance?, a
dramatic new approach to a
billboard campaign on Firewise
landscaping.

We came up with the idea in 2002

while leading a Cooperative
Wildland Fire Prevention/Education
Team in the Pacific Northwest. The
following year, extreme fire danger
prevailed in the Northern Rockies,
where I was working on the Lolo
National Forest. I was asked to
form another Fire Prevention/
Education Team, this time in the
Southwest Montana Zone.

I immediately dug out the old plans

for Got Clearance? In accordance
Figure 1—An urgent point is driven home with a punch. Photo: Jon Agner, USDA Forest
with our philosophy of “less is Service, Lolo National Forest, Missoula, MT, 2003.
more,” we thought we could best
drive home the point about
Firewise landscaping with as few
words as possible. We came up with
two billboard designs (figs. 1 and 2).

We also developed a 60-second tele­

vision public service announcement
featuring the University of Montana
mascot, Monte the Grizzly Bear.
Monte prepares defensible space
around a home in the
wildland/urban interface using a
slapstick routine—comedy under­
pinned with a serious message.

In addition, we saw an opportunity

to tie our campaign into local
advertising for lawn-related tools
and equipment. We worked with
local hardware stores to get them Figure 2—Surviving a fire with good defensible space—a big message in a few words.
to adopt the Got Clearance? theme. Photo: Jon Agner, USDA Forest Service, Lolo National Forest, Missoula, MT, 2003.

Jon Agner is the acting fire prevention offi- For more information, contact Jon Agner, Lolo National Forest,
cer for the USDA Forest Service, Lolo 406-677-3935 (tel.), [email protected] (e-mail). ■
National Forest, Missoula, MT.

Fire Management Today

12
TESTING FOR DECK MATERIAL
FLAMMABILITY
Jim Wheeler

E
fforts to reduce fire danger in
the wildland/urban interface Most deck material is tested for flame spread
(WUI) are finally getting the rates but not necessarily for ignition potential or
attention they deserve. National
energy production.
and State funding is addressing a
century of ecosystem degradation.
Local communities are practicing In March 2002, fire marshals from al to construct six decks. The deck
preventive maintenance through Flagstaff, Prescott, and Payson, AZ, material included wood products as
fuels reduction and ecosystem met to discuss the issue of deck well as four commonly found types
stewardship programs. One area, flammability. We believed that if of composite materials. We made
however, is still in need of atten­ decks ignited during a wildland fire, one deck from all five test materials
tion—outdoor deck material. the fire could reach proportions combined, one from wood products
that would break windows and alone, and four from the composite
Why Worry About doors, igniting structures with oth­ materials.
Decks? erwise firewise construction. We
Flagstaff, AZ, is a national leader in decided to conduct an ad hoc test The decks were 4 feet (1.2 m)
firewise construction in the WUI. of different deck materials to gain a square on 2- by 10-inch (5- × 25­
Subdivision developers must per­ better understanding of how they cm) frames. The frames were set on
form forest stewardship (thinning) perform in a wildfire. 8- by 8- by 16-inch (20- × 20- × 40­
across the entire site, use class-A cm) cement blocks stacked 2 feet
roofs, limit combustible exterior The Decks (0.6 m) high. A fiber-cement siding
siding, and install NFPA 13D sprin­ Through donations from local lum­ product was used at the base on
kler systems. Such built-in protec­ ber and home improvement busi­ two sides to simulate a typical
tion systems mitigate the indoor nesses, we acquired enough materi­ house stemwall (fig. 1). All deck
and outdoor fire threat, but they
don’t address the potential com­
bustibility of deck materials.

Although most deck materials are

tested for flame spread rates, the
Flagstaff fire authorities couldn’t
tell from the material safety data
sheets whether they are also tested
for other effects commonly found
in wildland fires, such as ignition
potential or energy production.
Perhaps manufacturers were not
exposing their deck materials to
roof tests, such as the burning
brand or flying brand tests.

Jim Wheeler is the assistant fire chief and Figure 1—Typical deck test array. Different products were constructed on wooden frames
fire marshal with the Flagstaff Fire and placed on cement blocks with a simulated fiber-cement stemwall attached. Photo: Jim
Department, AZ. Wheeler, Flagstaff Fire Department, Flagstaff, AZ, 2002.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

13
materials were untreated, and no If decks ignite during a wildland fire, the fire could
stain or other flammable liquids reach proportions that would break windows and
were applied.
doors, igniting structures with otherwise firewise
The Tests construction.
Burning Ember Test. One test
involved only the deck made from
all five materials combined. We
placed hot embers on the deck to
simulate ember fallout in advance
of a fire front. All of the materials
charred slightly. Some quickly self-
extinguished, whereas others smol­
dered for more than 30 minutes
without ignition. All embers even­
tually cooled and self-extinguished
(fig. 2).

Surface Fire Test. The other test

involved the five decks made from
different materials. We placed 2
inches (5 cm) of pine needles under
the decks to fuel the kind of run­
ning surface fire commonly found
in Arizona’s WUI. A ventilation fan
provided a constant wind of 5 to 8
miles (8–13 km) per hour. We lit
Figure 2—Burning ember test. Hot embers failed to ignite any of the various materials
the pine needles and waited to see used to build the deck. Photo: Jim Wheeler, Flagstaff Fire Department, Flagstaff, AZ, 2002.
whether the deck material would
ignite and how severe the resulting
fire would be.

The surface fire ignited all decks

tested, but the materials behaved
differently after the surface fire
exhausted its pine needle fuels and
went out. The wood deck was the
slowest to ignite, and it self-extin­
guished relatively quickly (fig. 3).
Most of the composite materials
ignited easily and resulted in high
to extreme fire severity (fig. 4).

But Trex,* a material made from

plastic and wood, performed well.
Trex was more difficult to ignite

*The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this

publication is for the information and convenience of
the reader. Such use does not constitute an official
endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Figure 3—Wood deck test. The wood deck performed well and resisted ignition from the
Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are simulated surface fire. However, no stains or varnishes had been applied to its surface
responsible for the technical accuracy of the material before the test. Photo: Jim Wheeler, Flagstaff Fire Department, Flagstaff, AZ, 2002.
presented in Fire Management Today.

Fire Management Today

14
than the other composites and ulti­ (such as pine needles) on the deck provide quick results. It is therefore
mately self-extinguished (fig. 5). surface. Our burning ember test difficult to draw firm conclusions
Trex’s fire resistance appeared to involved a clear deck surface. Other about any of the materials we tested.
result from its density. The com­ testing is being done nationally on
posites that performed poorly were ember ignition of debris accumula­ However, we did gain enough infor­
less dense. tion on decks. mation to better understand the
combustibility of the various deck
Clear the Decks Moreover, our tests weren’t strictly materials tested, which will help us
We did not test for deck flammabili­ scientific. They were designed to to institute local policy to better
ty with an accumulation of debris demonstrate certain conditions and serve the community. Based on the
tests, we made three important
Figure 4— findings:
Composite deck
test. The test fire • Manufacturers and testing labs
easily ignited the
composite materi­ should use standard fire tests to
als, which burned determine the specific character­
with high severity. istics of products and materials
Photo: Jim
Wheeler, Flagstaff
used in the WUI.
Fire Department, • Although it is impossible to
Flagstaff, AZ, achieve 100-percent certainty
2002. when dealing with wildland fire,
by reducing fire risks and hazards
we can improve the chance of a
positive outcome.
• Our surface fire tests resulted in
more destructive fires than the
burning ember test. If homeown­
ers keep vegetation and debris
from accumulating under their
decks, they can considerably
reduce the risk of surface fire igni­
tion, especially in a wildland area.

The Flagstaff Fire Department has

adopted a new fire prevention regu­
lation permitting the use of wood
and Trex decks in the WUI. We are
also open to testing new and differ­
ent materials, should someone
want to build with a material not
analyzed in this test.

For additional information, contact

Jim Wheeler or Paul Summerfelt at
the Flagstaff Fire Department, 211
W. Aspen Ave., Flagstaff, AZ 86001,
928-779-7688 (tel.). ■

Figure 5—Trex deck test. Trex was difficult to ignite and self-extinguished when the test
fire ran out of pine needle surface fuels. Photo: Jim Wheeler, Flagstaff Fire Department,
Flagstaff, AZ, 2002.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

15
IS FLORIDA’S PRESCRIBED FIRE PROGRAM
SOMETHING TO GET CHOKED UP ABOUT?
Bruce Harvey and Susan Fitzgerald

T
he National Forests in Florida
burn an average of 125,000 Wildfires posed more of a health hazard than
acres (51,000 ha) of national prescribed fires, especially for those with
forest land annually in one of the
respiratory problems.
largest prescribed fire programs in
the Nation. During the 1990s, the
Florida Department of Environ­ 1400A PM10 air monitors to sample
mental Protection, Division of Air
Test Results
the air every hour (fig. 1). We Results evaluated here are only for
Resource Management, began placed one air monitor in the
researching the impact of pre­ the monitor at the Wakulla Work
Apalachicola National Forest’s Center, which started providing
scribed burning on air quality, par­ Wakulla Work Center in Leon
ticularly the amount and type of valid data in August 1996. We
County and the other on the Ocala examined data only for prescribed
particulate matter produced. National Forest in Lake County, fires and wildfires within a 5-mile
near Ocala, FL. (9-km) radius of the monitor,
In 1993, the Division of Air
Resource Management conducted unless the data showed a significant
The Forest Service and the Florida spike for an incident beyond the
two onsite monitoring studies in Division of Air Resource Manage­
cooperation with the National 5-mile (9-km) radius.
ment developed a cooperators’
Forests in Florida. Small portable agreement for managing the air
air monitors were placed in the The monitor recorded all PM10
monitors. The agreement allowed impacts, not just smoke. However,
immediate area of the burns and up the Division to add the monitors to
to 0.5 mile (0.9 km) downwind to its rural location helped to ensure
its statewide network to include that urban and industrial sources of
monitor particulate with a diameter more of Florida’s airsheds in its
size of 10 microns or less (PM10) particulates did not significantly
monitoring program. The Division affect the readings.
(see the sidebar on page 18). The agreed to maintain the air monitors
data were used to determine and to provide the Forest Service
whether the USDA Forest Service’s with the data produced.
prescribed fire program was affect­
ing neighboring air quality. Prescribed fire on
the Apalachicola
Test Equipment National Forest,
Wakulla District,
In 1996, the National Forests in Crawfordville, FL
Florida purchased two Teom* 1996.

Bruce Harvey is a fire management officer

and prescribed fire specialist for the USDA
Forest Service, National Forests in Florida,
Tallahassee, FL; and Susan Fitzgerald is a
fire ecologist for the USDA Forest Service,
Apalachicola National Forest, Bristol, FL.

* The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this

publication is for the information and convenience of
the reader. Such use does not constitute an official
endorsement of any product or service by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are
responsible for the technical accuracy of the material
presented in Fire Management Today.

Fire Management Today

16
 Figure 1—Teom
Tables 1 and 2 show, in abbreviated 1400A PM10 air
format, the highest hourly PM10 val­ monitor used on
the Apalachichola
ues for prescribed fires and wild­ National Forest,
fires from 1996 to 2000. Wakulla Work
Center. Photo:
Bruce Harvey,
Data Analysis USDA Forest
The data showed that the amount Service,
Crawfordville, FL,
of smoke particulates produced can 1996.
vary greatly from burn to burn,
depending on placement of air
monitors, fuel loads, and meteoro­
logical conditions. High concentra­
tions of particulates were found in
the immediate area of a prescribed
burn. Particulate concentrations

Table 1—Hourly readings for particulate matter (PM10 ) associated with wildland fires,
Wakulla Work Center, 1996–2000.
Number of Acres Highest hourly
Fire type incidents burned reading (µg/m3) a Comments
1996
Prescribed 9 11,087 135 Winds toward monitor.
Wildfire 1 5 63 Winds toward monitor.
1997
Prescribed 6 5,046 175 Winds toward monitor. Reading resulted
from a 3,600-acre (1,460-ha) prescribed fire
by aerial ignition.
Wildfire 1 15 45 Winds away from monitor.
1998
Prescribed 8 9,944 135 Winds toward monitor.
Wildfire 2 19,603 1,156 Winds toward monitor. Reading resulted
from a 19,600-acre (7,930-ha) wildfire
7 miles (11 km) south of the monitor.
1999
Prescribed 8 9,784 92 Reading resulted from a burn adjacent
to monitor.
Wildfire 5 6,666 503 Reading resulted from a wildland fire
within 1.5 miles (2.4 km).
2000
Prescribed 3 3,583 28 Winds away from monitor.
Wildfire 5 6,716 311 Winds toward monitor. Reading resulted
from a 6,600-acre (2,700-ha) wildfire
22 miles (35 km) southwest of the air monitor.
a. Highest hourly reading, not the 24-hr standard (mean).

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

17
diminished rapidly as the distance Table 2—Summary of hourly readings for particulate matter (PM10)
from a burn increased due to dis­ associated with wildland fires, Wakulla Work Center, 1996–2000.
persion and plume rise.
Number of Highest hourly
Fire type incidents Acres burned reading (µg/m3)
Data analysis confirmed what fire
managers already knew: Prescribed Prescribed 34 39,444 175
fires are conducted when weather
Wildfire 14 33,002 1,156
and fuel conditions allow managers
to control both the fire and the
smoke, whereas wildfires often
Clean Air Standards
Neither prescribed fires The standards set by the U.S. • A 24-hour value of 150 micro-
Environmental Protection grams per cubic meter, not to
or wildfires exceeded Agency (EPA) under the Clean Air be exceeded more than once
the 24-hour standard of Act to protect human health are per year over a 3-year period.
150 micrograms per known as National Ambient Air
cubic meter. Quality Standards (NAAQSs). The The NAAQSs were revised by EPA
PM10 standard is for particulate in July 1997 to include a standard
matter with a diameter size of 10 for particulate matter with a
burn under severe fire conditions microns or less. The NAAQS for diameter size of 2.5 microns or
and poor smoke management con­ PM10 is: less (PM2.5). The data evaluated
ditions. here are for the PM10 standard
• An annual mean value of 50 only.
Although the Wakulla Work Center micrograms per cubic meter;
air monitor recorded prescribed and
fires that might have affected
human health, high hourly readings
were brief, and the monitor showed 150 micrograms per cubic meter Acknowledgments
no high readings the following day. during the 5-year study period from The authors wish to thank Joe
By contrast, wildfires had high 1996 to 2000. Ferguson, fire staff officer, National
hourly readings for several consecu­ Forests in Florida, for his com­
tive days, posing more of a health For additional information, contact ments and encouragement; and
hazard, especially for those with Bruce Harvey, Florida Interagency Evelyn Libby for her technical
respiratory problems. However, nei­ Coordination Center, 3250 Capital expertise. ■
ther prescribed fires nor wildfires Circle, SW, Tallahassee, FL 32310,
exceeded the 24-hour standard of 850-523-8607 (tel.),
[email protected] (e-mail).

Fire Management Today

18
A TRIBUTE TO ENGINE 805
Sara Patterson

W
e finally said goodbye to old
Engine 805. For almost 30
years, she just kept on
going, dousing wind-fanned flames
even when they seemed unstop­
pable. But Engine 805 will fight no
more. Disaster couldn’t stop her,
but retirement did.

A Firefighter Is Born
In 1974, Engine 805 was born in an
International Truck Corporation
assembly plant in Chicago, IL. She
was painted the shade of green
favored by the USDA Forest Service,
because her first employer was the
Lake George Ranger District on the
Ocala National Forest in Florida.

Engine 805 worked hard, but her

big weighty body was not suited to
Florida’s sandy conditions. Engine 805 and Smokey Bear, two warriors in the fight against wildfires. Photo: Tracy
Bayne, New Castle Record, New Castle, VA, 2002.
Fortunately, Joseph Rice, the fire
management officer on the New
Castle Ranger District in south­ A Star Is Born Night at a ballpark in Salem, VA.
western Virginia, appreciated her In 2002, Engine 805 was finally With her large compartments neat­
talent. He took Engine 805 to her retired from firefighting assign­ ly displaying racked nozzles and
new mountain home on the ments, but that didn’t end her hoses, Engine 805 let happy chil­
Jefferson National Forest, where career. She hit the entertainment dren climb onto her sideboards and
she saved countless fields and farms circuit, making numerous parade imagine being behind her wheel,
from flames. appearances with celebrities such peering into her interior for the
as Smokey Bear. very last time.
Others also called on her services.
In 1988, she fought fires that Sometimes her caretaker and Goodbye
threatened to engulf the thirsty “manager” Steve Elmore, a recre­ Engine 805 is no longer Federal
forests of Kentucky. A year later, ation technician on the New Castle property. At an auction in March
she tirelessly helped with cleanup Ranger District, would start her 2004, a private individual pur­
after Hurricane Hugo ripped mighty pump and shoot a stream of chased her for $3,400. Although in
through the Frances Marion water skyward. Squealing school­ beautiful condition and quite func­
National Forest in South Carolina. children would race through her tional, Engine 805 was no longer
In 1998, she battled multiple fires spray and climb behind her big cost-effective to maintain.
raging in her own backyard in what steering wheel, pretending to be
became the Castle Complex Fire. firefighters. Old Engine 805, we thank you for
serving and saving our national
Sara Patterson is a fire resource assistant In 2003, on a hot August night, forests and for helping a new gen­
for the USDA Forest Service, George
Washington/Jefferson National Forests, Engine 805 made her final gleam­ eration understand the importance
Roanoke, VA. ing appearance. It was Smokey Bear of fire safety. ■

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

19
“THE AIR WAS FIRE”:
FIRE BEHAVIOR AT PESHTIGO IN 1871
Hutch Brown

tragedy fire in U.S. history (see the the sidebar below). Of course, eye­

O
n October 8, 1871, as myth
would have it, Mrs. O’Leary’s sidebar on page 22). witness accounts such as Pernin’s
cow knocked over a lantern, “are prone to hindsight bias”
starting the great Chicago Fire. On Survivors left rich accounts of (Alexander and Thomas 2003)—a
the same day, as fate would have it, extreme and unusual fire behavior. bias that probably entered contem­
wildland fires swept through parts Franklin B. Hough captured some porary news accounts and investiga­
of Michigan and Wisconsin, form­ tive reports, including Robinson’s
ing “a regional complex that (1872). Still, such accounts are a
splashed across 2,400 square miles “It will be a long time useful, colorful point of departure
[6,200 km2] and engulfed even before those woods, for examining what happened in
Chicago” (Pyne 1999). Though sep­ and around the town of Peshtigo on
arated by up to hundreds of miles,
more relentless than that fateful October night.
the fires were connected by the the waters, give up
same general conditions— their dead.” “Majestic Wilderness”
“drought, human carelessness, and –C.D. Robinson, 1872 Peshtigo (pronounced PESH-ti-go)
a change in wind” (Wells 1968). In lies in northeastern Wisconsin
particular, the same “conducive about 6 miles (10 km) northwest of
synoptic situation” (Haines and of them in his momentous Report Green Bay, an arm of Lake
Kuehnast 1970) set off great fires in on Forestry (1882), a summary of Michigan (fig. 1). It straddles the
urban and rural landscapes alike. forest conditions chartered by the Peshtigo River, which transported
U.S. Congress. Hough reprinted or the area’s rich timber resources
The area burned was far greater in summarized reports on the when logging began there in
Michigan than in Wisconsin— Peshtigo Fire by Father Peter earnest following the American
about 2.5 million acres (1 million Pernin (1874), C.D. Robinson Civil War (1861–65). Initially built
ha) compared to 1.28 million acres (1872), and others. Pernin’s eyewit­ around a sawmill, the town soon
(512,000 ha) (Haines and Sando ness account was reprinted in 1971 acquired an immense woodenware
1969). However, most fatalities and, with a foreword by Stephen J. factory employing some 800 people
occurred in and around the town of Pyne, again in 1999. (Peshtigo Historical Museum n.d.).
Peshtigo, WI, which gave the fires By 1871, Peshtigo was a thriving
their collective name. Estimates of These stories help to illuminate the community of about 1,700 inhabi­
the number of dead are generally nature of extreme fire behavior (see tants.
more than a thousand (Gess and
Lutz 2002; Haines and Kuehnast
1970; Peshtigo Historical Museum
n.d.; Pyne 1982; Wells 1968), but What Is Extreme Fire Behavior?*
the region had so many new set­
tlers and itinerant workers that the “Extreme” implies a level of fire involved: high rate of spread, pro­
true number will probably never be behavior characteristics that ordi­ lific crowning and/or spotting,
known. Initially obscured by the narily precludes methods of presence of fire whirls, strong
Chicago Fire, the Peshtigo Fire is direct control action. One or convection column. Predictability
now widely regarded as the greatest more of the following is usually is difficult because such fires
often exercise some degree of
* From National Wildfire Coordinating Group, influence on their environment
Hutch Brown is the managing editor of
Fire Management Today for the USDA
Glossary of Wildland Fire Terminology (PMS 205, and behave erratically, sometimes
NFES 1832; Boise, ID: National Interagency Fire
Forest Service, Washington Office, Center, November 1996). dangerously.
Washington, DC.

Fire Management Today

20
 Just before the blowup, fire behavior was Peshtigo was not the only settle­
deceptively benign. ment in the area. It was connected
by rail to a port at the mouth of the
Peshtigo River 6 miles (10 km) to
the southeast. The woods to the
north and west held smaller settle­
ments and scattered farms, collec­
tively known as the Sugar Bushes
(for the forest’s sugar maple com­
ponent). Together with the twin
towns of Marinette and Menominee,
about 6 miles (10 km) to the north­
east, Peshtigo and its outlying
farms and settlements formed a
booming frontier community.
Investments by Chicago magnate
William B. Ogden were fueling
rapid development, and Peshtigo
was soon to be connected by rail to
Chicago.

Yet most of the surrounding forest

was still virgin timber. Pernin
(1999) described Peshtigo’s sur­
roundings as “a rude and majestic
wilderness—woods, everywhere
woods.” The rolling landscape held
“the cedar and the spruce” (north­
ern whitecedar and white and black
spruce), “evergreens” (red, jack,
and eastern white pine), and “all
kinds of hard wood, the oak, maple,
beech, ash, elm, and birch.” It was
a mixture typical of the Great
North Woods, broken in places by
“prairies and openings” (Robinson
1872).

According to Pernin (1999), cedar

and spruces prevailed in wet areas,
pines on sandy slopes, and hard­
woods wherever the land was “dry
and rich.” Historical fire return
intervals varied greatly among
these forest types. Surface fires
were rare in conifer bogs but rela­
Figure 1—Peshtigo and some of the other communities affected by the wildland fires of tively frequent in the pine forests of
1871. The fire perimeters shown encompass about 1.28 million acres (512,000 ha) in the Great Lakes (Bonnicksen 2002;
Wisconsin and Upper Michigan. Not shown are the far greater areas burned in Lower FEIS n.d.). In both forest types,
Michigan. Illustration: Courtesy of the Wisconsin Historical Society, image number 6783;
from Wells (1968). stand replacement fires occurred at

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

21
intervals of 100 to 200 years (50 Forgotten Fire?
years in jack pine). By contrast, fire
rarely touched the northern hard­ The wildland fires of 1871 in the When they were fought at all, it
wood forests of the Great Lakes, Upper Midwest burned through was usually only to protect mills,
where intervals between surface farms and towns across millions homesteads, and settlements.
fires typically “exceeded the lifespan of acres, yet they got little imme­
of individual trees [several hundred diate attention. In Wisconsin, The Peshtigo Fire seemed to
years]” (FEIS n.d.). Where fire- telegraph lines to the North show the folly of tolerating fire in
intolerant trees such as maple and Woods were down, and the news the woods. For weeks, surface
beech dominated, thousands of was slow to get out. When the fires smoldered across the land-
years might have passed between story finally broke, the Governor scape, until changing weather
stand replacement fires of Wisconsin was away, helping conditions blew them up into a
(Bonnicksen 2002). In such forests, victims of the great Chicago Fire. tragedy. By highlighting the hor-
extreme drought would seem to Initially obscured by Chicago, ror of Peshtigo, Hough suggested
have been necessary for a crown Peshtigo is sometimes called “the that backcountry fires must be
fire in presettlement times. Forgotten Fire” (Peshtigo controlled before “conditions
Historical Museum n.d.). present the greatest danger.”

The drought was mild Franklin B. Hough, head of the Hough thereby helped transform
compared to the times USDA Division of Forestry, recog­ the Peshtigo Fire into a poster
nized Peshtigo’s significance and child for fire control. Today,
leading up to other turned it to his advantage. In his despite its reputation as the
historically great fires in Report on Forestry (1882), he Forgotten Fire, Peshtigo is “any­
the Midwest. made it the centerpiece of his sec- thing but” (Pyne 1999). Cited in
tion “The Great Historical Fires in every compendium on great fires,
North America.” “Taken in con- the Peshtigo Fire helped set the
Extreme Drought? nection with the great calamity at stage for the 20th-century doc-
Such a drought occurred in 1871, Chicago,” he declared, “the trine of fire exclusion that still
according to contemporary sources autumn of 1871 [the wildland pervades public values.
often cited in later accounts (Gess fires in Michigan and Wisconsin]
and Lutz 2002; Wells 1968). For may be regarded as altogether the Therein lies the true danger. As
months, showers across the Upper most extraordinary [event] in the Pyne (1999) put it, “A misreading
Midwest were reportedly few and annals of disaster from fire that of the Peshtigo legacy—that fire
brief. By October, many streams has ever happened within the exclusion was the answer to fire
and wells had run dry. Even rich period of human history.” abuse—threatens to recreate the
organic bottomland soil was so old burn in more modern idiom.”
desiccated that it was burnable “to Hough’s report was partly Today, many Americans reject
the depth of a foot or more” designed to get Congress to pass prefire Peshtigo’s rural embrace
(Robinson 1872). The early October laws against free-ranging fires. In of fire use, smoke, and logging.
air was “hot and dry,” suggesting Hough’s day, fires were widely Freedom from such controls
low relative humidity. used in rural areas for purposes means that woody fuels today
such as clearing land and rejuve­ threaten to produce fires and
However, such accounts are open to nating forage. Fire escapes and tragedies on a scale rivaling
question. Descriptions such as “hot lightning fires were largely Peshtigo.
and dry,” for example, are both sub­ ignored so long as they remained
jective and relative. Later investiga­ in the backcountry (Haines and Today, the problem is not too
tors used U.S. Army Signal Service* Kuehnast 1970; Pyne 2001). much fire in the woods. The
problem is too little.
* Originally, the Signal Service was the Federal entity
responsible for collecting weather data. In 1891, it was
superseded by the U.S. Weather Bureau, predecessor of
today’s National Weather Service in the U.S. Department
of Commerce’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration.

Fire Management Today

22
data from the 1870s to test the the­ Surface fires scorched tree crowns and helped
sis that extreme drought con­ dry out the overstory, making canopy fuels
tributed to the Peshtigo Fire
(Haines and Kuehnast 1970; Haines
available for burning.
and Sando 1969; Haines and others
1976). areas that had already been black­
Woods on Fire
But something else was going on. ened. Before the blowup on October
“Drought was prevalent over much 8, smoke on Green Bay was report­
of the Midwest in the summer of Under the drought conditions, fires
had broken out across the Upper edly so dense that foghorns blew
1871,” Haines and Kuehnast (1970) steadily and daylight navigation was
confirmed, but the drought was Midwest in the summer and early
autumn of 1871. For weeks, persist­ done by compass (Hipke 2002).
mild compared to droughts before Trains on the expanding Chicago
other historically great fires in the ent low- to moderate-intensity sur­
face fires had been “sweeping and Northwestern Railway ran
Upper Midwest (Haines and Sando through 50 miles (80 km) of active
1969). In Wisconsin, although the through the timbered country, and
in some instances the prairies and fire (Robinson 1872).
winter preceding the fire was
abnormally dry, the following openings of all that part of
Wisconsin lying northward of Lake The “undermining burns” threatened
spring was wet. Summer precipita­ to carry into the homesteads and set­
tion again fell below normal, but Horicon, or Winnebago Marsh,
which was itself on fire” (Robinson tlements burgeoning in the North
summer temperatures were not Woods. “The outstanding haystacks,
extreme. Haines and others (1976) 1872). By scorching tree crowns,
the fires helped to dry out the over- the heavy log fences, the piles of
also found mixed signs of drought cord-wood, hemlock-bark, fence-
severity. For Madison, WI, they cal­ story, making canopy fuels more
readily available for burning. posts, and other products of the
culated a Keetch–Byram Drought forests … were prompt conductors to
Index of 300, well below the level carry the fire across these cleared
associated with severe drought. But Fire came from various sources.
Loggers were piling and burning plains,” observed Robinson (1872).
they also calculated a Palmer The fire hazards were perhaps some­
Drought Index of –3.79, suggesting slash; farmers were burning to
open new land to the plow; and what like those in today’s rural con­
a drought that was severe but not dition of the wildland/ urban inter­
extreme. workers were using fire to clear the
new railroad from Chicago. face,* where fuels on or near homes
According to Pernin (1999), aut­ surrounded by fire-prone forests can
Ambient air conditions just before pose lethal dangers.
the Peshtigo Fire do not suggest umn underburns were common in
extreme fire danger. The relative the region; hunters and farmers
routinely left campfires burning, “Presage of a
humidity was about 24 percent in
Madison, WI (Haines and others and the embers spread into dry Tempest”
1976), generally low for the region autumn leaves, “so that in autumn When wells went dry, residents
but hardly record breaking these woods are everywhere filled responded to the danger “mainly by
(Alexander 2003). Warm air from with fires that have been kindled by circumvallating the property with
the central Great Plains eventually the hand of man.” ditches” (Robinson 1872). The rudi­
raised nighttime temperatures into mentary firelines generally held
the 80s (27+ ºC), but at least one Surface fires were probably little around homesteads and communi­
location—Sturgeon Bay, WI— noticed in years with more rain, ties “so long as the fire preserved
recorded a temperature of 63 ºF (17 but the drought was making them the ordinary character of previous
ºC) at the time fire broke out worse than usual. Some were going fires” and stayed on the ground
(Haines and others 1976). Neither underground, particularly in dried- (Robinson 1872). But when the
drought nor ambient air conditions out bogs, where they burned down
to the mineral soil. Others, to the * In the rural condition, “scattered small clusters of
alone would seem to explain the structures … are exposed to wildland fuels.” See Brian
severity of the Peshtigo Fire. amazement of local observers (Gess F. Weatherford, “Study Supports Cooperative Fire
Protection in the West” (Fire Management Today 62[1]
and Lutz 2002), were reburning [Winter 2002]: 11).

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

23
wind sprang up, fires sometimes A large amount of fuel was usu­ tops and filling the air with a whirl­
spread into the canopy in terrifying ally available before the fire; this wind of flame.”
events that destroyed homes and would be analogous to a rifle
mills (Gess and Lutz 2002). shell. A unique series of climatic “Last Judgment”
events prevailed during much of A “hot southerly gale” (Robinson
Residents generally took such the fire season—the shell is 1872) drove fire into towns and
events in stride, grumbling about loaded into the rifle chamber. showered embers “upon the decks
the drought and dreading the occa­ Smaller fires were burning in of vessels seven miles [11 km] dis­
sional crown fires yet continuing to the forests and bogs—the ham­ tant on the bay.” As “the flames
use fire in the woods. For people in mer is pulled back. A favorable came through the air, above the
the North Woods, fires were a way synoptic weather pattern devel­ tops of the trees, and descended
of life. The stifling smoke that blan­ oped over the region—the trig­ upon them,” people thought that
keted the landscape was widely seen ger is pulled and the bullet is on the Last Judgment had arrived.
as a sign of progress. It meant that its way. They fled in droves (fig. 2), perish­
people were working, farms were ing by the dozens. “Some were
growing, and the railroad was com­ The “bullet” was about to strike. At burned near the buildings,” noted
ing. For weeks, residents staved off dusk, Pernin saw a red glow over Robinson (1872); “some were
the worst of the fires while hoping the smoke pall in the darkening caught in the fields and woods by
for rain. western sky. People soon heard “an the descending fires; others fled to
unusual and strangely ominous the woods and were caught there.”
By October 8, the worst seemed to sound, a gradual roaring and rum­
be over in the minds of many bling” (Robinson 1872). The rum­ The survivors told awesome tales of
(Wells 1968). “Everything com­ ble became like “a battle, with fire in the air. Fireballs reportedly
bustible on the ground had burned artillery, going on at a distance.” descended from the sky and explod­
out,” declared Robinson (1872). Another wave of fire was clearly on ed (Pernin 1999). Structures and
Fires still smoldered, but few were its way, and people prepared to face farm implements, though far from
actively burning. In Peshtigo, “the it. But it came “not along the the fire front, unaccountably burst
streets were full of people passing ground as they had been accus­ into flame (Gess and Lutz 2002;
to and fro, having no idea but to tomed … but consuming the tree­ Wells 1968). Some people reported
amuse themselves with songs and
laughter” (Pernin 1999). However,
Pernin himself felt uneasy, noticing
“a stifling and heavy atmosphere, a
mysterious silence in the air—the
common presage of a tempest.”

A storm was indeed brewing. A

reconstructed weather map for
October 8 shows an intense
cyclonic storm centered on
Colorado and Nebraska (Pernin
1999). Based on reports by the
Signal Service and the Smithsonian
Institution, Haines and Kuehnast
(1970) concluded that a cold front
was on its way. Under the circum­
stances, the change in weather
would prove disastrous. Haines and
Sando (1969) compared the situa­
tion to loading and firing a weapon: Figure 2—Panicked flight from the fires of 1871. Many survivors escaped to rivers and
lakes (note the water in the foreground). Illustration: Courtesy of the Wisconsin Historical
Society, image number 3728; drawing in Harpers Weekly (1871), p. 1037; created by G.J.
Tisdale, 1871.

Fire Management Today

24
lightning and other electrical One lesson is that large Radiation can produce similar
effects. “The fire was transformed fires produce volatile effects through area ignition. High-
into an electric current of fervid intensity flame fronts on two or
heat, and the heavens seemed to be
gases that are both more sides can make areas in
rolled, as it were, in a scroll,” lethal and unpredictable. between erupt in flame when radi­
declared Robinson (1872). ant heat drives gases from fuels and
the gases are ignited by embers.
Just before fleeing his home, with wet material, but radiant heat from Area ignition might account for the
the flames thundering outside the onshore blazes dried it out so “tales of cabins suddenly bursting
town, Pernin (1999) saw “a flashing fast that it began to smoke and had into flame in the middle of a large
that shone suddenly like grains of to be repeatedly doused. clearing, a considerable distance
powder touched by fire, and that from the burning woods” (Wells
flew from room to room.” He sur­ Phases of Combustion 1968).
mised that “the atmosphere was From the “grains of powder
saturated with some gas; and if this touched by fire” to the flames run­ Many sought safety in such clear­
gas … takes fire when nothing ning from shoreline over the water, ings (fig. 3), often in vain. In one
comes in contact with it but a Pernin’s account (1999) alludes to case, stumps remaining in a newly
breath of warm air, what will it do what Byram (1957) called the first cleared field caught fire and burned
when the advancing flames shall two phases of combustion: “First “like torches” (Wells 1968), driving
strike these inflammable objects?” comes the preheating phase, in out those seeking refuge there.
which fuels ahead of the fire are Even an old clearing several miles
Pernin would soon find out. heated, dried, partially distilled, and long and half a mile (0.8 km) wide
Together with hundreds of others, ignited. In the second phase, the offered little protection from a fire
he saved himself by jumping into distillation of gaseous substances that, according to Pernin (1999),
the Peshtigo River, from where he continues but is now accompanied seemed to travel through the air.
saw everything on fire in every by their burning or ‘oxidation.’”
direction—“the houses, the trees, Heat drives gases from fuels and Reports of atmospheric fire effects led
and the atmosphere itself” (Pernin the gases burn. to now discounted theories that the
1999). Standing in the river, Pernin
looked up and saw “nothing but
flames, immense billows of flame
that covered the whole sky, rolling
one upon another.” Filled with
combustible gases, the air itself was
ablaze.

Burning gases even reached the

river’s surface. “The flames ran
upon the water as upon the
ground,” wrote Pernin (1999); “the
air was filled with them, or rather
the air was fire.” Though up to
their ears in water, the survivors
were threatened by flames that
“seized our heads, and we were
obliged to throw water continually
with our hands upon our hair and
the parts necessarily exposed for
breathing.” People grabbed the
clothing and bedding that floated Figure 3—Families huddled in a field to escape the Peshtigo Fire. Such openings, even
when large, often failed to provide safety. Illustration: Courtesy of the Wisconsin
by and covered their heads with the Historical Society, image number 1881; created by Mel Kishner, 1968.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

25
 “The flames ran upon the water as upon the low-level jet is a surge in windspeed
ground; the air was filled with them, or rather the at a height of about 1,600 to 2,300
feet (500–700 m) (fig. 4). Long
air was fire.” associated with large fires, low-level
–Father Peter Pernin jets can help small fires get big by
overcoming the “wind-field barrier”
(Byram 1959) formed by stable lay­
fire was caused by buildups of marsh with a towering smoke column and ering in the lower atmosphere.
gas from the region’s dried-out peat strong indrafts at the base.
bogs (Gess and Lutz 2002; Pernin Low-level jets are common at night
1999). Robinson (1872) reported that Although Wells (1968) might be over relatively flat terrain
weeks of underburns and hot, dry partly correct, rising surface winds (Schroeder and Buck 1970).
weather might have produced a “for­ do not seem to have triggered the Formed by differences in atmos­
mation of gas from the long-heated blowup. In the weeks before pheric pressure, the jets glide along
pine forests of that region.” Hough October 8, winds had repeatedly the nighttime inversion layer like a
(1882) even speculated that the fire’s whipped up the surface fires with­ stream over its bed. They are usual­
severity was due to “an exceptionally out generating a firestorm (Gess ly broken up by the same daytime
strong tendency for the spread of and Lutz 2002). Conversely, sur­ temperature changes that lift the
flames in the atmosphere itself, per­ vivors made little or no mention of inversion. Under overcast condi­
haps due to electrical conditions or windy conditions on October 8 tions, however, low-level jets can
other causes.” until the firestorm was visibly form without an inversion and even
approaching or already at hand. persist during the day. Haines and
Weather Change Instead, most remarked on the Kuehnast (1970) suggested that the
Wells (1968) offered a more plausi­ “still” and “heavy” atmosphere in
ble explanation. For weeks, smoke the moments before the fire.
had hung in the air, reducing visi­ HT-1,000 FEET 17 KNOTS

bility and affecting lungs (Gess and Nor do Signal Service observations 25

Lutz 2002; Peshtigo Historical bear out the notion of a wind-driv­

Museum n.d.). A warm layer of air en crown fire. At 9 p.m., well after
apparently separated the surface fire had already broken out, inland 20
fires from the cooler air above, surface winds in Wisconsin were no
trapping heat and smoke relatively more than 14 miles per hour (22
close to the ground. According to km/h) (Haines and Kuehnast 1970).
15
Wells (1968), the pattern persisted “Even with major fire runs under­
due to a precarious balance among way, evening surface winds were
fuel, weather, topography, and fire relatively light in most of southern
activity. Michigan and certainly did not 10
appear to be excessive in northeast
The balance tipped on October 8 Wisconsin,” concluded Haines and
when weather conditions changed. Kuehnast (1970). The gale-force
5
Wells (1968) suggested that arriv­ winds later reported by survivors
ing southwesterly winds whipped were undoubtedly generated by the
up the many small fires, driving firestorm itself. WINDSPEED
them together through area igni­
tion. The energy unleashed by the Low-Level Jet Figure 4—Wind profile showing a low-level
jet. Low-level jets usually occur over rela­
uniting smoke columns then If surface winds did not trigger the tively flat terrain just above the nighttime
punched through the warm, blowup, what did? Haines and inversion layer, but they can also occur
smoke-filled layer of overlying air Kuehnast (1970) found that the under other conditions. Haines and
into the colder air above. The cold front advancing through the Kuehnast (1970) attributed the blowup
fires of 1871 to wind shear and turbulence
resulting updraft of whirling air Upper Midwest on October 8 was caused by low-level jets associated with an
created a plume-dominated fire, preceded by a low-level jet or jets. A approaching cold front.

Fire Management Today

26
smoke pall shrouding much of the front (Byram 1959). Witnesses ing to a prodigious height in the
Upper Midwest functioned like apparently mistook such phenome­ air, and of course far above the
cloud cover to support daytime na for true tornadoes (see the side­ reach of all inflammable materials.”
low-level jets associated with the bar below).
approaching cold front. For many, the superheated gases
Firestorm turbulence also helps to proved lethal. Survivors were
According to Haines and Kuehnast explain other unusual fire behavior. amazed to find so many of the dead
(1970), the low-level jets had a Embers caught in the turbulent unburned. “Men, women, and chil­
“strong anticyclonic shear.” winds would have set volatile gases dren were suffocated and found fall­
Resulting turbulence would have on fire, sending flames dancing en on the ground with no marks of
mixed the lower atmosphere, jolt­ across the water. The erratic cross­ fire upon their persons,” observed
ing the region’s smoldering fires to currents would have fed the Robinson (1872). Pernin (1999)
life and driving them together. The “immense waves of flame” that found it “passing strange” that
energy released by the uniting con­ Pernin (1999) saw from the river, “some dead bodies showed no
vection columns would have “rolling one upon another, mount­ marks of burning.”
pierced the weakening layer of
smoke-filled overlying air and
reached the cooler air above. “The Was There a Tornado?
flame, as it arose, drew in the sur­
rounding atmosphere, already Contemporaries theorized that a much as a thunderstorm. They
parched and heated in extreme “hurricane” (great windstorm) or can create “firewhirls of tornadic
degree, until it became a tornado of even a tornado caused the violence” (Graham 1952) that can
fire, sweeping everything before it,” Peshtigo Fire (Robinson 1872; encompass entire fires a thou­
reported the Detroit Tribune Wells 1968). Gess and Lutz sand yards (almost a kilometer)
(Hough 1882). A firestorm (2002) embraced the theory, across (Cramer 1954). Firewhirls
ensued—a “violent convection maintaining that “the strongest- are capable of snapping mature
caused by a large, continuous area force tornado, an F5, struck trees, picking up large logs, and
of intense fire” (Cramer 1954). Peshtigo at the time of the fire.” lofting enormous firebrands for
As evidence, they pointed to great distances (Graham 1957).
Firestorm Turbulence “descriptions of cloud forma­ Wells (1968) concluded that eye­
tions,” documentation of a witnesses almost certainly did
Firestorm indrafts cause powerful cyclonic storm, and “accounts of observe tornadoes—but “fire tor­
colliding winds, producing extreme survivors who witnessed houses nadoes” created by the fire itself.
turbulence. The erratic cross-cur­ and loaded train cars hurled hun­
rents make burning gases roll and dreds of feet through the air.” Moreover, large fires typically
spin, forming fiery funnels of enor­ The best evidence, they said, is leave areas within the fire
mous energy. Pernin (1999) told of the fact that the fire spared perimeter intact. The enormous
a “horrid whirlwind” and “vortices Peshtigo Harbor on Green Bay, 1871 fire perimeter containing
of wind.” “The pine-tree tops were 6 miles (10 km) to the southeast. Peshtigo was formed by multiple
twisted off and set on fire,” They apparently reasoned that fires that spared entire areas
Robinson (1872) reported, “and the destruction on the order that within the perimeter, such as the
burning debris of the ground was befell Peshtigo followed a narrow town of Oconto to the south
caught up and whirled through the course across the landscape, sug­ (Wells 1968). The fire that burned
air in a literal column of fire.” gesting a tornado. through Peshtigo split north of
town due to changes in fuel and
Large firewhirls are capable of However, Gess and Lutz (2002) topography, resulting in far less
throwing firebrands far ahead of also admitted that evidence for a damage to the towns of Marinette
the main fire, probably accounting tornado is inconclusive. As Byram and Menominee (Wells 1968).
for the descending “fireballs” (1957) observed, “three-dimen­ The fact that Peshtigo Harbor did
described by some. Fire tornadoes sional” fires can release an enor­ not burn therefore would seem to
are also capable of separating from mous amount of energy—as mean little.
their fuel bases and traveling up to
3 miles (4.8 km) ahead of a flaming

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

27
The dead were “generally lying face Energy from low-level jets can contribute to rapid
down” (Wells 1968), as if their last fire growth
moments were spent trying in vain
to find breathable air. The farmer
Thomas Williamson remembered area ignition across large openings. though uncharacteristically severe,
successfully “rooting” with his face In some cases, people using such still left a typical mosaic of burned
in the ground for air (Wells 1968). openings as safety zones might and unburned areas (USDA Forest
His brother John was not so lucky. have died simply from the shock of Service 2002). As Gess and Lutz
Thomas found him lying in a exposure to intense radiation. (2002) noted, the haphazard pat­
plowed potato patch, looking Greenlee and Greenlee (2003) dis­ tern of destruction left by the fire
“natural” but quite dead. cussed the difficulty for firefighters runs of 1871 was analogous to that
of finding adequate safety zones in of a tornado.
Lessons Reinforced forests where flame fronts can be
Studies of recent tragedy fires shed expected to reach 200 feet (60 m) A related lesson is that previous
light on accounts of the great in height. The difficulty would be underburning is no guarantee of
Peshtigo Fire. One lesson is that compounded if flame fronts are security (Butler and others 2001).
large fires produce volatile gases possible on multiple sides. One sce­ On the Peshtigo Fire, low-severity
that are both lethal and unpre­ nario drafted by Butler and others fires burned for weeks before the
dictable. On the South Canyon Fire (2001) for the failed escape route blowup, consuming surface fuels.
in 1994, 12 firefighters died while on the South Canyon Fire was area Crown fires are normally supported
trying to outrun the fire. Butler ignition due to high-intensity flame by convection from burning surface
and others (2001), based on evi­ fronts on three sides. fuels (Byram 1957). Without
dence collected during a painstak­ enough surface fuels to support
ing postfire study, drafted scenarios Another lesson is that large fire them, crown fires will often drop
of the firefighters’ final moments. behavior can be capricious and from the canopy to the ground. In
In one scenario, the firefighters unaccountable. Gess and Lutz one place, people escaped the
were enveloped by an unexpected (2002) claimed that the fire Peshtigo Fire into “the adjacent
blast of hot air before they could “stripped the land of all trees,” but timber, where the ground had been
reach safety. postfire photos of forested areas previously burned over, and were
near Peshtigo show many snags saved” (Robinson 1872).
On the Thirtymile Fire in 2001, and possibly even stands of surviv­
volatile gases from a high-intensity ing trees. In fact, large areas within However, their survival might have
flame front again proved fatal. the fire perimeter were entirely had more to do with erratic winds
Fourteen entrapped firefighters spared (see the sidebar), and from firestorm turbulence than with
could not see the fire approaching burned areas showed evidence of a lack of surface fuels. Surface fires
with its flattened convection col­ mixed fire severity. According to typically leave partially consumed
umn aimed at their position Robinson (1872), “Houses were fuels, which can later fuel another
(Brown 2002; USDA Forest Service burned while adjoining barns were fire. Similarly, surface fires usually
2001). The ensuing blast of hot air saved. Fences, pumps, and outhous­ consume the upper fuel layers in the
apparently caught them offguard. es were burned, while dwelling soil, exposing duff and other buried
Four firefighters perished because houses within a few yards escaped.” materials that were initially too wet
they could not get a good seal “The fire might spare one cowering to burn. Such materials can dry out
against the ground with their fire group of refugees,” observed Wells and become available for later burn­
shelters. Like many victims of the (1968), “while every member of ing. Both the surface reburns that
Peshtigo Fire, they died from the another group a short distance amazed local observers and the
effects of inhaling superheated away was burned to death.” crown fires that ultimately followed
gases. evidently found enough surface fuels
Similarly, the 1991 firestorm in to support them.
A related lesson pertains to safety Oakland and Berkeley, CA,
zones and escape routes. On the destroyed some houses while leav­ Another lesson from Peshtigo is
Peshtigo Fire, radiant heat from ing others intact. The 2002 that extreme fire behavior can
multiple sides apparently caused Rodeo–Chediski Fire in Arizona, occur abruptly. Just before the

Fire Management Today

28
blowup, fire behavior was decep­ It is also easy to suppose that rarely and severe, Peshtigo showed typical
tively benign, and people thought burned forest types will support a characteristics of large fire behav­
the worst was over. The sudden crown fire only under conditions of ior, such as concentrations of
transition to extreme fire behavior extreme drought and high wind. volatile gases, variable severity, and
was repeated on the South Canyon Peshtigo showed the opposite. A relatively sudden changes.
Fire (Butler and others 2001) and relatively mild drought, together
the Thirtymile Fire during the with persistent surface fires, set the However, Peshtigo also serves to
entrapment (Brown 2002; USDA stage for a blowup apparently illustrate what Byram (1954) called
Forest Service 2001). brought on not by surface winds, “the contradictions in the facts of
but by low-level jets. Charney and extreme fire behavior.” Most
Peshtigo reinforces yet another others (2003) found something blowup fires occur in mountainous
important lesson from South similar for the 1980 Mack Lake Fire terrain in the afternoon, whereas
Canyon: The longer and farther a in Michigan (Simard 1981): Peshtigo occurred in relatively flat
fire burns, the more likely it is to Atmospheric mixing from low-level terrain at night, when atmospheric
change behavior (Butler and others jets caused a prescribed fire to conditions seemed stable (Wells
2001). On the Peshtigo Fire, under- escape, ultimately costing a fire­ 1968). As Haines and Kuehnast
story fires smoldered for weeks, fighter’s life. Clearly, energy from (1970) showed, the synoptic events
drying out canopy fuels and linger­ low-level jets can contribute to that triggered Peshtigo under these
ing long enough for the weather to rapid fire growth (Byram 1959). conditions are extremely complex
change. When a cold front ap­ and difficult to fathom.
proached on October 8, a blowup Unforgettable Fire
resulted. Initially obscured by the great For firefighters today, the lessons
Chicago Fire, the Peshtigo Fire has from Peshtigo might not be new,
Cautionary Tale never been forgotten. Today, it is but they still bear remembering.
Finally, Peshtigo holds a cautionary widely considered one of the great­ One of them is humility—to
tale. It is easy to forget that north­ est tragedy fires in history, over­ remember “the possible futility in
ern hardwood forests burn, because shadowing even larger or equally attempting to explain each fact”
fire return intervals are normally so tragic fires (Pyne 1999), such as the (Byram 1954).
long. But if a hardwood forest has a Miramachi Fire in New Brunswick
coniferous understory together with (1825), the Matheson Fire in Acknowledgments
large amounts of slash or other Ontario (1916), or the Cloquet Fire The author thanks Dr. Gerald W.
dead and down material—as was in Minnesota (1918). Williams, the national historian for
probably widely the case near the Forest Service, Washington
Peshtigo in 1871—it can readily The accounts reprinted by Hough Office, Washington, DC, for fur­
fuel a large, high-severity fire. (1882) might be a good part of the nishing the section of Hough
Survivors noted no difference in fire reason. The powerful tales told by (1882) on which this article is
effects between the Sugar Bushes, Pernin, Robinson, and others have largely based; and Dr. Martin E.
where the farm-dotted forest was inspired a series of artistic rendi­ Alexander, a senior fire behavior
probably dominated or codominated tions of the horrors faced that research officer for the Canadian
by sugar maple, and areas with night (Gess and Lutz 2002; Hipke Forest Service, Edmonton, Alberta,
more fire-prone coniferous forest 2002). They have lent themselves to for reviewing the manuscript and
types. Something similar happened dramatization (Gess and Lutz 2002; providing invaluable insights and
in Maine in October 1947 (Wilkins Wells 1968) and even to inspiration materials based on his own
1948), when a series of firestorms for firefighters (Leschak 2002). research and professional expertise.
covering 200,000 acres (80,000 ha)
indiscriminately burned across the To Pernin, the entire firmament References
same forest types as in Wisconsin. had seemed ablaze, in apparent Alexander, M.E. 2003. Personal communi­
Even a maple forest with large defiance of reason and faith. Today, cation. Senior Fire Behavior Research
Officer, Canadian Forest Service,
openings can fuel a firestorm under after more than a century of experi­ Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
the right combination of climatic ence and scientific study, the Alexander, M.E.; Thomas, D. 2003. Wildland
and synoptic conditions. Peshtigo Fire no longer seems so fire behavior case studies and analyses:
baffling. Though exceptionally large Other examples, methods, reporting stan­
dards, and some practical advice. Fire

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

29
 Management Today. 63(4) [Fall 2003]: Gess, D.; Lutz, W. 2002. Firestorm at Pyne, S.J. 1982. Fire in America: A cultural
4–12. Peshtigo: A town, its people, and the history of wildland and rural fire. Seattle
Bonnicksen, T.M. 2000. America’s ancient deadliest fire in American history. New and London: University of Washington
forests: From the Ice Age to the Age of York, NY: Henry Holt and Company. Press.
Discovery. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Graham, H.E. 1952. A firewhirl of tornadic Pyne, S.J. 1999. Foreword: The Peshtigo
Brown, H. 2002. Thirtymile Fire: Fire violence. Fire Control Notes. 13(2): paradigm. In: Pernin, P. 1999. The Great
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Cohen, J.D.; Andrews, P.L.; Putnam, T.; tion as favored by topography and upper Pyne, S.J. 2001. Year of the fires: The story
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14–26. [Reprinted in Fire Management Haines, D.A.; Kuehnast, E.L. 1970. When Legislative Manual of Wisconsin. In:
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Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. fires in the North Central Region. Res. weather: A guide for application of mete­
Byram, G.M. 1957. Some principles of com­ Pap. NC–34. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest orological information to forest fire con­
bustion and their significance in forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment trol operations. Ag. Handb. 360.
fire behavior. Fire Control Notes. 18(2): Station. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service.
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Today. 64(1) [Winter 2004]: 37–44.] 1976. An assessment of three measures of Management Notes 42(2): 5–6. [Reprinted
Byram, G.M. 1959. Forest fire behavior. In: long-term moisture deficiency before in Fire Management Today. 63(4): (in
Davis, K.P. Forest fire control and use. critical fire periods. Res. Pap. NC–131. St. press).]
Ch. 4. New York: McGraw-Hill: 90–123. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service, North USDA Forest Service. 2001. Thirtymile Fire
Charney, J.J.; Bian, X.; Potter, B.E.; Central Forest Experiment Station. investigation report: Accident investiga­
Heilman, W.E. 2003. Low level jet Hipke, D.C. 2002. The great Peshtigo Fire tion factual report and management eval­
impacts on fire evolution in the Mack of 1871. Website uation report. September 26, 2001, as
Lake and other severe wildfires. <http://www.peshtigofire.info/>. amended October 16. Winthrop, WA:
Presentation at conference: Fifth Hough, F.B. 1882. Report on forestry. USDA Forest Service.
Symposium on Fire and Forest Washington, DC: Government Printing USDA Forest Service. 2002. Rodeo–Chediski
Meteorology; 16–20 November; Orlando, Office. fire effects summary report. August.
FL. [Abstract at Leschak, P.M. 2002. Ghosts of the fire- Springerville, AZ: USDA Forest Service,
<http://ams.confex.com/ams/FIRE2003/te ground: Echoes of the great Peshtigo Fire Apache–Sitgreaves National Forest.
chprogram/paper_65866.htm>.] and the calling of a wildland firefighter. Wells, R.W. 1968. Fire at Peshtigo.
Cramer, O.P. 1954. Recognizing weather San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
conditions that affect forest fire behavior. NIFC (National Interagency Fire Center). Whitney, G.G. 1994. From coastal wilder­
Fire Control Notes. 15(2): 1–6. [Reprinted 2002. Historically significant wildland ness to fruited plain: A history of environ­
in Fire Management Today. 64(1) [Winter fires. Website mental change in temperate North
2004]: 29–33.] <http://www.nifc.gov/stats/historical­ America from 1500 to the present.
Greenlee, J.; Greenlee, D. 2003. Trigger stats.html>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
points and the rules of disengagement. Pernin, P. 1874. The judgment of God is University Press.
Fire Management Today. 63(1): 10–13. here! In: Hough, F.B., comp. 1882. Report Wilkins, A.H. 1948. The story of the Maine
FEIS (Fire Effects Information System). on forestry. Washington, DC: forest fire disaster. Journal of Forestry.
N.d. Kuechler potential natural vegeta­ Government Printing Office: 236–240. 46: 568–573. ■
tion types. Website Pernin, P. 1999. The great Peshtigo Fire: An
<http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>. eyewitness account. Madison, WI: State
Missoula, MT: USDA Forest Service, Historical Society of Wisconsin.
Intermountain Research Station, Fire Peshtigo Historical Museum. N.d. The great
Sciences Laboratory. Peshtigo Fire (brochure). Peshtigo, WI.

Fire Management Today

30
WILDLAND FIRE DECISIONMAKING
Nick Greear

ildland firefighters have

W been assessing fires and

addressing the need to
develop and select containment
When wildland firefighters size up a fire, they
develop and select containment strategies
considering firefighter and public safety, costs,
strategies for decades. In the 1970s,
the USDA Forest Service, as a result and available resources.
of the change from the 10 a.m.
Policy to the Least-Cost-Plus-Loss
Policy, formalized the assessment WFSA when a wildland fire escapes and rehabilitation costs.
process for fires escaping initial or is expected to escape initial Alternatives must focus on fire­
attack. Soon other Federal agencies attack or if it escapes planned pre­ fighter and public safety; be imple­
followed, and now many States use scription parameters. A WFSA mented with available suppression
a similar form of analysis before must: resources; and show how they will
succeed, considering an estimate of
selecting suppression strategies.
• Identify criteria for evaluating final fire size, containment and
The process, initially called an
suppression alternatives; control times, suppression costs,
Escaped Fire Situation Analysis
• Develop and analyze suppression and anticipated resource damages.
(EFSA), is now known as a
alternatives;
Wildland Fire Situation Analysis
(WFSA).
• Receive approval and provide Making an Effective
notification; and WFSA
• Monitor, evaluate, and document
The Process the assessment process.
A WFSA requires the following key
The Forest Service requires fire preparation steps:
management officers to complete a Important evaluation criteria • Begin with an appropriately scaled
include firefighter and public safety, map to adequately display alterna­
Nick Greear is a retired regional fire opera­ actions that are consistent with tives, including a worst-case alter­
tions specialist for the USDA Forest applicable land and resource man­
Service, Eastern Region, Milwaukee, WI. native. Show the existing fire
agement plans, and suppression perimeter and its projected

During (left) and after (right) the 2000 Bitterroot Fires near Sula, MT. Multiple fires burned hundreds of thousands of acres of State
and Federal land, much of it in the wildland/urban interface. Almost a quarter of everyone in the Bitterroot Valley was either evacu­
ated or prepared to evacuate. The situation was so complex and resources were so strained that even the best wildland fire situation
analyses proved ineffective. Photos: USDA Forest Service, 2000.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

31
 growth without suppression
actions during the analysis period.
• Develop alternatives, including a
least-cost alternative, that are
safe and feasible.
• Determine the significant criteria
that will likely affect the alterna­
tives, separating them out from
the neutral criteria that have less
bearing on decisionmaking.
• Conduct the analysis and select
the alternative that best meets
the criteria.
• Develop an initial WFSA that
meets the timeframes and pro­
vides reasonable direction to inci­
dent commanders during their
first operational periods. If need­
ed—and as time and resources
permit—develop and analyze sub­
sequent WFSAs.
Plume from a blowup in the upper Lawson Creek Drainage on the Biscuit Fire, August 16,
Tools Used 2002. The fire was far too vast—almost 500,000 acres (200,000 ha) across four adminis­
trative units—for any single person or team to analyze. Wildland fire situation analysis
In the late 1970s, an EFSA was a on large fires like this does little to help decisionmakers develop alternatives and select
simple two-page form that guided effective strategies. Photo: Gary Percy, USDA Forest Service, Siskiyou National Forest,
Grants Pass, OR, 2002.
the assessment process and docu­
mented the results for a fire escap­
ing initial action. As analyses
became more sophisticated in the
Using software for a wildland fire situation
1980s, the form grew to more than analysis can lead to focusing on the numbers
six pages. In the early 1990s, rather than on effective alternative development,
demand for an automated process analysis, and selection.
resulted in development of a soft­
ware application. Refinements to
application releases continued until the type of organization needed to • Many agency administrators and
the birth of the current version, manage a fire most effectively. The fire managers are not sufficiently
WFSA Plus99.* entire analysis, including a page for trained to conduct effective
daily review and monitoring, can be analysis.
Using WFSA Plus99, fire managers printed for review. • During development of a WFSA,
can upload fire-planning data, there is often not enough time to
including average suppression costs Limitations and use the application’s full capabili­
and resource losses, and input cri­ Weaknesses ties. “Default” values chosen in
teria from a land management unit haste can lead to erroneous out­
Fire managers and agency adminis­
or fire zone before a fire occurs. comes.
trators admit that WFSA Plus99 has
The program creates decision trees • Making the application “work”
some problems:
and provides a complexity analysis sometimes overshadows the goal
format to help managers determine of using it to make better deci­
• Full and correct use of the appli­
cation requires a trained techni­ sions.
* Information about WFSA and WFSA Plus99 software is
available on the World Wide Web at cian, which is often difficult for • WFSA Plus99 does not facilitate
<http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/wfsa/>. A Line Officer’s Guide
units with limited fire programs. development of a least-cost alter­
to Wildland Fire Decision Making is available at
<http://www.fs.fed.us/r3/loguide.html>. native.

Fire Management Today

32
 Using WFSA for Large Fires Meeting the need for
Developing a WFSA for large the 2002 fire season, four
effective alternative
fires, especially for large fire com- administrative units burned development and
plexes such as Bitterroot in 2000 and others were threatened. analysis will increase in
or for megafires such as Biscuit The area was too extensive— complexity as issues
in 2002, is difficult. The charac- the fire perimeter reached
teristics of such fires, with almost 500,000 acres (200,000
surrounding wildland fire
extreme burning conditions, mul- ha)—for any single person or suppression mount.
tiple jurisdictions, and several team to analyze, and separate
incident management teams, can analysis on each administrative
form might be appropriate, espe­
challenge alternative develop- unit would not have resulted in
cially for WFSAs prepared immedi­
ment and analysis. Consider: an overall, effective strategy.
ately after the first burning period
when time is critical. The form
• In Montana’s Bitterroot Valley During these fires, agency admin­
simplifies the process, clearly dis­
during the 2000 fire season, istrators directed the area com-
plays the alternatives, and provides
two highly skilled fire manage- mand team to prepare a WFSA to
easy-to-discern evaluation criteria
ment officers developed WFSAs meet their management criteria
to make decisions. However, the
for the many individual and and provide overall strategy to
form does not create a decision
complex fires. After exhaustive the incident management teams.
tree, and training and proficiency
analysis and use of WFSA However, developing, analyzing,
are still needed to adequately devel­
Plus99, the results did not alter and selecting effective contain-
op an effective WFSA.
the fire strategies used. ment strategies using a WFSA did
Evaluation revealed that the not occur during either incident.
Updating WFSA Plus99 to allow
analysis was ineffective because
users to replicate the paper version
too many fires existed, they Decisions concerning large fires
for use during initial WFSA devel­
were growing at unanticipated are based on current funding, the
opment could address some process
rates and were growing togeth- availability of suppression
limitations. Users could save the
er, and the increasing shortage resources, and other social and
data entered into the new module
of resources prevented reason- political factors. Therefore, allow­
to use in later analysis. A version
able alternative development. ing second- and third-level
update might also include develop­
agency administrators to make
ment of a least-cost alternative.
• During the Biscuit Fire in decisions on very large fires
southwestern Oregon during might be appropriate.
The goal of a WFSA is to provide a
format for developing sound alter­
natives and making rational deci­
• During large conflagrations, the Service spent more than $1 billion
sions during wildland firefighting.
ability of WFSA Plus99 to help on wildland fire suppression activi­
While documentation is important,
decisionmakers develop alterna­ ties in 2002—highlight the impor­
it is imperative is to use a process
tives and quickly analyze and tance of sound decisionmaking by
and tools that foster informed,
select effective strategies is com­ agency administrators. Land man­
strategic fire suppression
promised (see sidebar). agement agencies involved in fire­
decisions. ■
fighting must have effective WFSA
The Future of WFSA tools.
Wildland fire fatalities and escalat­
ing suppression costs—the Forest Some units are again using a hard-
copy version of a WFSA. Using the

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

33
WILDLAND FIRES IN BOTSWANA
Witness Mojeremane

W
orldwide, wildland fire has Wildfire cause and frequency By U.S. standards, many fires in
long been part of the natu­ depend largely on location and the Botswana are enormous. As table 1
ral environment of people size of the local population. Most shows, average fire size in 2001 was
(DeBano and others 1998). Since fires in Botswana originate in popu­ more than 18,000 acres (7,000 ha),
the mid-Pleistocene, people have lated areas and spread to more compared to 42 acres (17 ha) in the
become increasingly adept at using remote areas. Most acres burn in United States (NIFC 2003). If the
fire to manipulate ecosystems to relatively remote areas, partly area burned in the United States in
obtain desired benefits (Pyne and because fire control there is more 2001 had been proportionally simi­
others 1996). In many places, peo­ difficult. lar to the area burned in Botswana,
ple have altered the frequency and more than 72 million acres (29 mil­
severity of wildland fire on a land­ lion ha) would have burned—about
scape level. Although fire is an By U.S. standards, 17 times more than the 10-year
important tool, uncontrolled or many fires in Botswana average for the United States.
misused fires can adversely affect
are enormous.
both the environment and society. Wildfires in Botswana are worst fol­
lowing a wet summer, when grasses
Many tropical and subtropical become highly dense. The most
countries such as Botswana (see
Fire Extent and severe wildland fires occur in areas
the sidebar) experience relatively
Severity where annual rainfall exceeds 24
large annual fires. These fires are Botswana has all types of wildland inches (600 mm). The dense vege­
having an increasing regional and fires, from ground fires, to surface tation here yields fuel loads in
global impact on the environment. fires, to crown fires. During the excess of 357 pounds per acre per
Impacts on flora and fauna can be long, dry winter season (see the year (400 kg ha-1 yr-1). Where rain­
profound, because fire transforms sidebar), leaves, grasses, and other fall is less, fuel loads range from
the countryside. Moreover, the fine fuels become highly flamma­ 134 to 178 pounds per acre per year
smoke from tropical fires carries ble. Enormous areas often burn (150–200 kg ha-1 yr-1), resulting in
vast amounts of atmospheric pollu­ (table 1). fewer severe fires.
tants (Heikkilä and others 1993).
Table 1—Wildland fires and area burned, Botswana, 1991–2001
Fire Causes (Agricultural Resources Board 2002).
Most wildfires in Botswana are
human caused; lightning fires are Acres burned
few (Central Statistics Office 2000). Year Number of fires Acres Hectares
However, the exact cause is often 1991 125 2,843,155 1,151,075
unknown. Known and suspected 1992 70 1,815,218 734,906
causes involve hunters, safari expe­
1993 87 3,271,925 1,324,666
ditions, smokers, campfires, wildlife
poachers, motorized vehicles, fires 1994 144 4,983,437 2,017,586
spreading across the border (from 1995 56 1,211,289 490,380
Namibia and Zimbabwe), and farm­ 1996 223 3,156,658 1,277,999
ers or villagers setting fire. In 1997 199 179,826 72,804
Botswana, as in many other devel­ 1998 113 n.a.a n.a.a
oping countries, fire has long been
1999 165 35,583 14,406
an agricultural tool.
2000 n.a.a n.a.a n.a.a
Witness Mojeremane works for the 2001 249 4,633,424 1,875,880
Botswana College of Agriculture,
Gaborone, Botswana. a. Fires occurred but data are not available.

Fire Management Today

34
 Botswana: Physical Conditions
Botswana is a landlocked country generally dry (Mojeremane 1999). The country is moderately forest-
of 225,000 square miles (582,000 Annual temperatures in summer ed. About 25 percent of the land
km2). It borders the Republic of can exceed 95 °F (35 °C), and win- area is classified as forest and an
South Africa on the south, ter temperatures can drop below additional 20 percent as wood-
Zimbabwe on the northeast, 32 °F (0 °C), with occasional night- land. Closed forests are rare and
Zambia on the north, and time frost from June to August. occur only in riparian zones, par-
Namibia on the west. Elevations ticularly in the Okavango swamps
range from 1,200 to 4,300 feet About 80 percent of Botswana is and along the lower reaches of
(600–1,300 m) above sea level. covered by Kalahari sands, predom­ the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers.
inant in the western and northern The most significant forest area is
Botswana has a semiarid and arid parts of the country (Otsyina and in and around Chobe District in
climate marked by pronounced Walker 1990). The sandy soils are the north, where large areas of
cycles of dry and wet years well drained. Derived from acidic Baikiaea woodland occur, sus­
(Bhalotra 1987; Otsyina and igneous rocks, they are generally tained by relatively high rainfall.
Walker 1990). The mean annual infertile. The sands vary in depth More than half of the country has
rainfall ranges from 10 to 26 from 10 feet (3 m) to occasionally savanna vegetation, which occurs
inches (250–650 mm) (Bhalotra more than 330 feet (100 m) mainly where rainfall ranges from
1987; Ntogwa 1995). More than (Ntogwa 1995). Highly populated 8 to 14 inches (200–350 mm)
90 percent of the rains fall in eastern Botswana has moderately (Ministry of Finance and
summer (October to April), with fertile soils ranging from sandy Development Planning 1997).
the winter (May to September) loams to clay loams (Otsyina and
Walker 1990).

Fire season in Botswana normally 17 percent, with an additional 22

starts between April and June. Wildfires have had a percent in wildlife management
Early-season fires are rarely severe, high impact on areas (Government of Botswana
because the scant fuels are not yet 1986). Prescribed burning occurs
Botswana’s
dry and fires are easy to contain. when fuel volume is small and
Late-season fires from August to environment, destroying moisture content not too low.
October are more extensive and both forest and
destructive. They occur when the rangeland resources. Firebreaks of up to 30 feet (10 m)
vegetation is dry and fire control is have been constructed in all State
difficult due to high heat and wind. forest reserves, national parks, and
• Loss of homes and personal game reserves. They are cleared of
Fire Effects property, and flammable vegetation by cultivation
Wildfires have had a high impact • Loss of tourism revenue. every year before the fire season
on Botswana’s environment, starts.
destroying both forest and range­ Fire Prevention and
land resources. However, the dam­ Control Fire prevention methods include
age caused by wildfires in Botswana Early (prescribed) burning is prac­ educating people about the danger
varies from year to year (table 1). ticed in State forest reserves, of wildfires through the media and
Impacts have included: national parks, and game reserves public gatherings. Fire prevention
to reduce highly flammable fine signs are also used to inform the
• Soil erosion, fuels on the forest floor. These public of regulations, restrictions,
• High water runoff, areas make up much of the coun­ and procedures to reduce acciden­
• Loss of wild and domestic animals, try; State forest reserves cover 1 tal and escaped fires. Signs are
• Loss of timber resources, percent of Botswana’s land area erected along roadsides, at camp­
• High cost of fire suppression, (Ntogwa 1995), and national parks grounds, and anywhere people
• Loss of human life, and game reserves cover more than congregate.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

35
The Ministry of Environment, Prescribed burning is practiced in State forest
Wildlife and Tourism has “herbage reserves, national parks, and game reserves
conservation committees” in all six
agricultural regions of Botswana.
to reduce highly flammable fine fuels on the
The committees hold public meet­ forest floor.
ings on wildfires and other conser­
vation issues. Various laws govern
fire control and prevention, includ­ Persistent Problem Governmant of Botswana. 1986. Wildlife
conservation policy. Gov. Pap. 1.
ing the Forest Act of 1968, Agri­ The wildfire problem in Botswana Gaborone, Botswana: Government
cultural Resources Conservation is severe and likely to persist. Fire Printer.
Heikkilä, T.V.; Grönqvist R.; Jurvelius, M.
Act of 1974, and Prevention of Fires prevention will never eliminate all 1993. Handbook on forest fire control: A
Act of 1977. wildfires, although it can reduce guide for trainers. FTP Pub. 21. Helsinki,
them dramatically. There is a Finland.
But fire control in Botswana faces Mojeremane, W. 1999. Azanza garckeana: A
strong need for all stakeholders review and field evaluation in a village
severe constraints. In rural areas, (government agencies, nongovern­ context in Botswana. B.S. diss. University
the only way for someone to report mental organizations, local people, of Wales, Bangor, Wales.
a fire is to go to the police or near­ and others) to work together to Ministry of Finance and Development
Planning. 1997. National Development
est local authority. Many local peo­ fight the problem of wildfires in Plan 8. Gaborone, Botswana: Ministry of
ple hesitate to do so for fear that Botswana. Finance and Development Planning.
they will be suspected of having NIFC (National Interagency Fire Center
[U.S.]). 2003. “Wildland fire season 2001
started the fire. References at a glance.” Website
Agricultural Resources Board. 2002. <http://www.nifc.gov/fireinfo/2001/index.
Moreover, rural people often have Miscellaneous report. Gaborone, html>.
Botswana: Ministry of Environment, Ntogwa, C.V. 1995. Critical review of
little incentive to join in fighting a Wildlife and Tourism. Botswana forest policy. B.S. diss.
fire. Unlike government workers, Bhalotra, Y.P.R. 1987. Climate of Botswana, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen,
they are not paid for firefighting part 1: Rainfall. Gaborone, Botswana: Scotland.
and receive no personal protective Department of Meteorological Services, Otsyina, R.; Walker, K.P. 1990. Agroforestry
Ministry of Works and Communications. development in Botswana. Final report.
equipment. Government vehicles Central Statistics Office. 2000. Gaborone, Botswana: Ministry of
are also usually in short supply to Environment statistics. Gaborone, Agriculture.
take firefighters to the fire. Botswana: Central Statistics Office. Pyne, S.J.; Andrews, P.L.; Laven, R.D. 1996.
DeBano, L.F.; Neary, D.G.; Ffolliott, P.F. Introduction to wildland fire. New York,
1998. Fire’s effects on ecosystems. New NY: John Wiley & Son Inc. ■
York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Fire Management Today

36
THE FIRE BELOW: SUPPRESSION
TACTICS FROM ABOVE
Mike Benefield

R
obert W. Mutch’s essay “Why
Don’t We Just Leave the We need to recognize several basic tactical
Fireline?” (Mutch 2002) factors for making sound decisions regarding
addresses a basic approach to tacti­
above-fire firefighting on steep slopes.
cal situations involving firefighting
on slopes. The concept, however,
needs further exploration. In some especially through chimneys and slope. Safety also requires viable
situations, perhaps it is better to other narrow topographic features. escape routes and safety zones
ask, “Why even approach a wildland along a well-scouted approach
fire on a steep slope from above?” Why don’t we leave the fireline path—in other words, good LCES
Some important tactical aspects above the fire on a slope? Why (lookouts, communications, escape
that build upon Mutch’s observa­ don’t we approach it from the bot­ routes, and safety zones).
tions should be noted. tom on our own terms? What fac­
tors lead to a safer tactical opera­ The initial approach should reduce
Tactical Above-Fire tion on a slope? risk to acceptable levels for all per­
Aspects sonnel. If it is impossible to safely
We need to recognize several basic The Initial Approach. First, we approach a wildland fire from
tactical factors for making sound need to safely reach our anchor below, wait to engage the fire until
decisions regarding above-fire fire­ point. Whenever burning condi­ after it has burned to a location for
fighting on steep slopes, where the tions are extreme, approach the fire successful anchoring.
area becomes a death trap as the from below and avoid above-fire
heat rises. Many firefighting fatali­ tactics. It might be necessary to Manage the fire from the bottom
ties, such as on the 1994 South walk a considerable distance to the up: Fire the line as you advance
Canyon Fire, share two important fire from downcanyon or down­ with as direct an attack as possible
elements:

• The initial approach was from

above the fire, and
• Firefighters were traveling uphill
to escape blowup conditions from
below.

Although strong downslope winds

can push a wildland fire downhill
with amazing speed, burnovers on
fires driven by downslope winds are
rare. The convective heat column
above a fire tends to be most effi­
cient at driving the fire uphill,

Mike Benefield is the fire management

officer for the USDI Bureau of Land Midafternoon on the Old Fire on the San Bernardino National Forest, CA. Risk to fire­
Management, Central Oregon Fire fighters engaged in above-fire operations increases as the burning period progresses.
Management Service, Rivers Division, Photo: Mike Benefield, USDI Bureau of Land Management, Central Oregon Fire
Prineville, OR. Management Service, Rivers Division, Prineville, OR, 2003.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

37
while defending your anchor point.
Rolling material will become the
greatest threat to your anchor
point. Expect it and plan your tacti­
cal response before you initiate
your anchor point.

Advance no farther than the

amount of fireline that you can
successfully defend. While this
might seem a little less than “can
do,” it represents a time-tested and
safe way to control wildland fires.

Timing. An important question to

ask whenever approaching a fire in
mountainous terrain is, “Will the
timing of above-fire tactics place Lookout posted in brush 12 feet (4 m) high on the Old Fire, San Bernardino National
firefighters above the fire between Forest, CA. Experienced lookouts with reliable communications gear are critical for any
the hours of 10 a.m. and 10 p.m.— above-fire tactical operation. Photo: Mike Benefield, USDI Bureau of Land Management,
the driest, hottest part of the day— Central Oregon Fire Management Service, Rivers Division, Prineville, OR, 2003.
at the peak of the local fire season?”
The window of increased risk is Guidelines in The Fireline
between the beginning of the fire Whenever burning Handbook (NWCG 1998) provide
season and a season-ending event. conditions are extreme, the foundation for assessing and
The timing of this window might mitigating the risks involved in
approach the fire from
vary with drought conditions. constructing downhill fireline.
below and avoid above-
Location. A planned fireline should fire tactics. However, it is important to mitigate
have a well-established anchor the hazards of above-fire tactics by
point and not place firefighters in a practicing avoidance when condi­
fuel below. Fuel that appears burned tions are extreme and by adjusting
confined space (such as narrow
might merely be primed for repeat the amount of time that firefighters
canyons or chimneys) above the
ignition. Some fuels produce rolling are exposed to the increased risk.
fire. Avoid midslope tactics in
material. Preparation is crucial. Even with good LCES in place, fire­
chutes and narrow canyons with
the fire below. fighters should never challenge a
Weather. Avoid above-fire tactics wildland fire to a foot race on a
whenever cold fronts are forecasted. slope. The fire almost always wins.
Additionally, a planned fireline
Slope and wind-driven fire make for
should not place firefighters within
an explosive mix. Cold fronts and References
thermal belts with the fire below. In
nighttime diurnal winds also pose Mutch, R.W. 2002. Why don’t we just leave
such situations, avoid midslope tac­
problems for firefighters below the the fireline? Fire Management Today.
tics. Instead, locate the thermal 62(4): 22–24.
fire.
belt and observe the fire’s behavior NWCG (National Wildfire Coordinating
between 10 p.m. and midnight. The Group). 1998. The fireline handbook.
thermal belt is usually the most Let’s Not Race NWCG Handbook 3. PMS 410–1. NFES
0065. Boise, ID: National Interagency
active area higher on the slope. Should we abandon the practice of Fire Center. ■
downhill line construction? No. We
Fuels. Avoid above-fire tactics with can, however, reduce risk to accept­
continuous and partially burned able levels with proper preparation.

Fire Management Today

38
IMPROVING A WILDLAND FIRE
SITUATION ANALYSIS THROUGH GIS
Matthew Galyardt, LLoyd Queen, and Laura Ward

T
he wildland fire situation analy­
sis (WFSA) is a great way to What Is a Wildland Fire
assess wildland fires that escape
initial attack (see the sidebar). It
Situation Analysis?
documents the situation, sets forth When a fire escapes initial attack, The WFSA process documents
objectives, and facilitates communi­ local fire managers must com­ actions and decisions, helping
cation on the ground. Yet it has a plete a wildland fire situation other fire managers and the gen­
basic drawback: The WFSA relies analysis (WFSA). The WFSA is a eral public see the logic behind
entirely on text to describe a decisionmaking and communica­ suppression strategies and tactics.
changing situation on the ground. tion tool that allows fire man­ Level of detail and depth of analy­
Without a spatial or mapping com­ agers to make effective and time­ sis depend on the complexity of
ponent, it’s hard to visualize what ly decisions while at the same the wildland fire situation. A
the fire is actually doing time directing and clarifying dis­ large fire staffed by a type 1 or
(MacGregor n.d.). cussion. A WFSA: type 2 incident management
team generally requires a full-
Now there’s a way of visualizing the • Details the current wildland length WFSA, whereas an inci­
changing situation on the ground fire situation, dent that will be contained and
by integrating a geographic infor­ • Outlines objectives of, and con­ controlled in 3 to 7 days usually
mation system (GIS) into the straints to, suppression efforts, requires a short WFSA with at
WFSA. A GIS can graphically show • Describes and compares alter­ most two suppression alterna­
how fire location, direction of native suppression strategies, tives.
spread, and topography relate to and
sensitive resources and the wild­ • Chooses a strategy.
land/urban interface (WUI). Fire
managers can then better antici­
pate concerns, make decisions, and maps, review and validate WFSA
communicate with incident man­ A GIS can graphically objectives, and pass better direction
agement teams (IMTs). show how fire location, and information to incoming
resources and IMTs.
direction of spread, and
The Project
topography relate to Through ArcGIS,* we developed an
In spring 2002, the Ninemile
Ranger District on the Lolo sensitive resources and application for using maps and spa­
National Forest in Huson, MT, and the WUI. tial analysis to more accurately
The National Center for Landscape depict the process described by a
Fire Analysis at the University of WFSA. We picked ArcGIS due to its
Montana in Missoula, MT, began to support a WFSA. The Ninemile functionality and built-in Incident
discussing the idea of using a GIS Ranger District can count on an Command System symbology. We
extended-attack fire every fire sea­ also anticipated that the wildland
Matthew Galyardt is a research assistant at
son. It consistently receives fire community will eventually
The National Center for Landscape Fire resources from other units and has
Analysis, University of Montana, Missoula, to manage large fires and numer­
MT; LLoyd Queen is the Director of the ous resources for extended time- * The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this
Center and a professor of remote sensing at publication is for the information and convenience of
the University of Montana; and Laura Ward frames. The district wondered the reader. Such use does not constitute an official
endorsement of any product or service by the U.S.
is a fire management officer for the USDA whether GIS technology could be Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are
Forest Service, Lolo National Forest, used to update incident-related responsible for the technical accuracy of the material
Ninemile Ranger District, Huson, MT. presented in Fire Management Today.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

39
switch to ArcGIS. ArcGIS is a scala­ The GIS application easily incorporates data
ble framework of products that collected through global positioning systems into
form a complete GIS, from data
storage, to editing, to display, to
the WFSA.
mapping. Within the ArcGIS frame­
work, our application uses ArcInfo fighting resources, their loca­ We stitched together 1:100,000 and
8.x for continued development and tions, and fire perimeters. 1:24,000 digital raster graphics
administrative tasks and ArcView from the USDI U.S. Geological
8.x for everyday user tasks. Although the data took time to Survey to create a seamless base
organize and compile, they were map for the Ninemile Ranger
Transitioning to the newer versions readily available. Most data came District. For a seamless overhead
of ArcInfo and ArcView will take from the Lolo National Forest photo of the entire district, we plan
time. Many ranger districts and supervisor’s office and the rest from to supplement the base map by
wildland fire personnel are con­ the Federal Aviation Administration, adding digital orthophoto quarter
cerned about the cost and time the Frenchtown Rural Fire quadrangles when they become
associated with learning the new Department, and the Natural available.
software. The Ninemile Ranger Resource Information System of the
District viewed this project as an Montana State Library (on the Figure 1 shows where the GIS is
excellent opportunity to begin the World Wide Web at <http://nris. integrated into the WFSA process.
transition, and learning the new state.mt.us>). There is no physical link—each
software did not prove overly diffi­
cult for district personnel.
Especially with a working knowl­
edge of ArcView 3.x, the user can
quickly master the basics.

Data Collection
Based on the types of maps the dis­
trict wanted to produce for the
WFSA, we collected the following
types of data:

• Low-level flight hazards, such as

powerlines and communication
towers;
• Sensitive resources, such as
endangered species habitat or
recreational and archeological
sites;
• Wildland/urban interface data,
such as roads, homes, and the
defensibility of private property;
• Environmental features, such as
cover type, hydrology, and digital
elevation models;
• Administrative boundaries, such
as national forest boundaries, pri­
vate inholdings, and fire protec­
tion jurisdictions; and
• Data that can be created on-the­ Figure 1—The geographic information system (GIS) is integrated into the fire situation
fly, such as different types of fire- stage of a wildland fire situation analysis.

Fire Management Today

40
desktop application remains sepa­ The GIS application also taps useful Line officers can use
rate. The link is through process nonspatial data. For example, it the GIS application for
and information. While fire person­ gives information associated with
nel complete the fire situation private homes (fig. 2), such as con­
spatial analysis to
component of the WFSA, they uti­ tact names, phone numbers, street support decisionmaking.
lize the GIS for map production addresses, digital photos, and
and spatial analysis. In addition, defensibility information. Such
some of the information required information can be vital for con­ district’s jurisdictional boundaries,
to complete a WFSA is now stored tacting residents in the event of an including non-Federal inholdings.
and organized within the GIS. emergency, such as an approaching By clipping data to these bound­
wildland fire. aries, we created a data catalog spe­
cific to the district, eliminating the
General Advantages
large data files that commonly
Map production is a key advantage Mapping Flexibility
cover an entire national forest.
of integrating GIS into a WFSA. For the Ninemile Ranger District,
Maps are vital for achieving situa­ we created a map template to give Two of the five maps—the vicinity
tional awareness, especially on all WFSA maps a common appear­ and flight hazard maps—are static.
complex incidents, and certain ance. The district asked us to pre­ They do not require regular updat­
types of maps have become stan­ define and design five maps: ing or tailoring. The most common
dard on all large fires (Albright and addition to these maps is fire
others 2002). By linking a GIS to a • A vicinity map (fig. 3), perimeter data.
WFSA document, such maps can be • A low-level flight hazard map,
predefined and produced before a • A map of sensitive natural The other three maps are dynamic.
wildland fire occurs. Fire perimeter resources (fig. 4), They can be tailored to different
data and desired symbology can • A WUI map (fig. 2), and purposes. For example, they might
quickly be added, and the maps are • An incident action map (figure 5). support a generalized briefing, a
ready for distribution to firefighters detailed incident action plan, or
upon arrival. With the exception of the vicinity postfire rehabilitation; or they
map, the maps are limited to the
The GIS mapping feature is partic­
ularly helpful for short WFSAs,
where only one or two alternatives
are required. During extended
attack, there is no need for data
acquisition and map design.
Incoming resources get accurate
maps, and harried local fire man­
agers can quickly bring a develop­
ing incident into focus.

The GIS application easily incorpo­

rates data collected through global
positioning systems into the WFSA.
Fire perimeter updates can be
added to maps as soon as data are
collected by air and ground
resources. Situational awareness
improves, and managers can better
plan their strategies and tactics.
Moreover, the spatial analysis capa­
bilities of the GIS greatly aid man­
agers in modifying WFSA objectives Figure 2—Firewise data collected by the Frenchtown Rural Fire Department are spatially
represented within the GIS application.
as the fire perimeter changes.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

41
 The user can generate
virtually any kind of map
needed by simply
turning on and off data
layers.

might show fire progression,

endangered wildlife habitat, or
threatened residences and their
defensibility. The district can gener­
ate virtually any kind of map need­
ed by simply turning on and off
data layers.

The Ninemile Ranger District also

wanted to increase its data-sharing
capabilities. We prepared the data
and map templates so that they can Figure 3—Vicinity map for the Ninemile Ranger District (dark green) on the Lolo
National Forest in Montana.
be burned to just two CD’s totaling
about 800 megabytes. Fire manage­
ment personnel from the district
can simply pass the CDs along with
the rest of a WFSA to incoming
IMTs. Having the data readily at
hand saves time for the IMT, letting
it quickly get maps into the hands
of firefighters.

Spatial Analysis
The GIS application also helps with
spatial analysis. For example, it can
show which houses are closest to
the fire and where the access routes
are located (fig. 6). In a matter of
minutes, fire managers can find
nearby water sources, see any water
quality or other restrictions on
their use, and decide how best to
reach them. Line officers can use
the GIS application for spatial
analysis to support the decision- Figure 4—Managers can view how sensitive resources such as bull trout watersheds, 303d
water quality streams, proposed wilderness areas, and hiking trails spatially relate to
making process associated with future wildland fires.
the WFSA.

Fire Management Today

42
 Figure 5—Map However, the usefulness of the GIS
of a hypothetical application goes beyond situations
fire perimeter on
the Ninemile associated with a WFSA. The
Ranger District Ninemile Ranger District uses the
of the sort that application for any situation during
the district or an
incident man­ fire season and even for offseason
agement team planning work. The GIS application
might use for an can help managers improve plan­
incident action
plan. ning and situational awareness dur­
ing a mid-August lightning bust
and an overwinter prescribed
burn alike.

For more information, contact

Matthew Galyardt, National Center
for Landscape Fire Analysis,
University of Montana, Missoula,
MT 59801, 406-243-2000 (tel.), 406­
243-2011 (fax),
[email protected] (e-mail).

References
Albright, D.; Del Sordo, D.; Kehrlein, D.;
Frost, J. 2002. Geospatial technology for
incident support. Unpublished paper.
Website <http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/gis/>.
National Wildfire Coordinating Group.
MacGregor, D.G. N.d. Accounting for wild-
land fire costs in wildland fire situation
analysis (WFSA): Prospects and problems.
Unpublished paper. Website
<http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/wfsa/WFSAmacg
regor.htm>. National Academy of Public
Administration, Washington, DC. ■

Figure 6—Quarter-mile (400-m) buffer rings surrounding a hypothetical ignition in the

wildland/urban interface. The GIS application’s spatial analysis capabilities can help fire
managers and law enforcement officers anticipate evacuation plans and egress routes.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

43
THE POCKET PC CAN INCREASE
YOUR PRODUCTIVITY
Ed Martin

A
relatively new technology
exists that can help local, The Pocket PC comes with the same standard
State, and Federal wildland fire built-in applications that we use on our desktop
and aviation management pro­
computers and interfaces nicely with them.
grams reduce paperwork and
improve productivity. It’s called the
Pocket PC. Several makes and mod­ some and error prone, as was our Other applications are also available
els are commercially available. existing computer application. We (see the sidebar).
wasted a great deal of time correct­
Growing Workload ing errors. By updating or replacing We chose a model with built-in
The Air Operations Section in the our forms and procedures as well as wireless capabilities, allowing us to
Montana Department of Natural our antiquated computer system, print to a printer without cables, to
Resources and Conservation oper­ we could improve productivity. access a network, and to utilize spe­
ates a fleet of five helicopters and cialty applications. The system has
three single-engine aircraft Low-Cost Solution fewer printing features than does a
obtained mainly through the We looked for a low-cost solution desktop application, but it still
Federal Excess Personal Property that we could develop and imple­ works quite well.
program. We have a small staff, a ment inhouse. We chose a Personal
growing workload, and little hope Data Assistant, or Pocket PC, for its Key to making the system work is
of hiring additional personnel. portability and versatility. The data synchronization between the
Pocket PC comes with the same Pocket PC and the desktop comput­
To find ways to reduce our work­ standard built-in applications that er. When you connect your Pocket
load, we reviewed our entire avia­ we use on our desktop computers, PC to your desktop computer, a
tion management program, from and the interface works nicely. program automatically checks for
the simplest tasks all the way up to
our management style. We found
that aircraft maintenance involved
an enormous volume of repetitive
The Pocket PC Has Many
paperwork. Whether moving Applications
around the hangar or traveling
In addition to interfacing with phone—slow in our area, but
across the State, we are rarely at
the standard programs on a desk­ still useful.
our computers, so we usually make
top computer, the Pocket PC sup­ • Order parts or check bulletins
paper notations and later type them
ports hundreds of more special­ from the Federal Aviation
into a computer.
ized programs, ranging from Administration.
flight-planning calculators to • Create a purchase order and
One of our most time-consuming
wildland fire behavior calcula­ possibly fax it by cell phone
tasks is managing our inventory of
tions and hydraulics. For exam­ (we’re still working on that).
aircraft parts. The duplicated effort
ple, the Pocket PC lets us: • Connect to a global positioning
of typing data into the computer
system unit and use it as a
from paper notations was cumber-
• Create aircraft weight and bal­ moving map.
ance forms for our helicopters. • Use coordinates from an air
Ed Martin is the aircraft maintenance
supervisor for the Montana Department of
• Access the Internet by cell crew to navigate directly to an
Natural Resources and Conservation, Fire aircraft in the field.
and Aviation Management, Aviation
Section, Helena, MT.

Fire Management Today

44
changes made to either system and keeping tasks directly on the download PDF versions of manuals,
then updates both. Multiple Pocket Pocket PC. As we scan the part, the such as the Army Maintenance Test
PCs can thereby be synchronized to barcode system will automatically Flight Manual. Although the charts
the same database. log parts onto the work order, are unreadable, the instructions are
fully legible. The PDF manufacturer
We selected a database program predicts that the manuals will soon
that lets us implement a barcode The Pocket PC has be printable from the Pocket PC.
tracking system for our parts already reduced our When that happens, we will no
inventory, from requisition to con­ longer need to carry large sets of
sumption. Upon receipt of a part,
workload and improved
manuals with us.
we can print the barcode tag direct­ productivity, but we
ly from the Pocket PC to a printer; believe that we have The Pocket PC has already reduced
no desktop or network connection only scratched the our workload and improved pro­
is required. In short, the whole surface of what is ductivity, but we believe that we
process of requisitioning, ordering, have only scratched the surface of
tracking, and using the parts is possible. what is possible with this kind of
handled right on the Pocket PC. technology. For more information,
The system works so well that we please contact the author at
adjust the inventory, prompt to
use the desktop computer only for Montana Department of Natural
reorder, and update the timelife­
data synchronization and backup. Resources and Conservation, Fire
tracking application. Right there in
and Aviation Management, Aviation
our hand we will have everything
Future Improvements we need to initiate, complete, and
Section, 2800 Airport Road, Helena,
Our next project is to implement a MT 59620-1601, 406-444-0789
print a work order in the field.
work order system integrated with (tel.), 406-444-0790 (fax),
the new parts system. The system [email protected] (e-mail). ■
We also expect other improve­
will allow us to perform all record- ments. Already, the Pocket PC can

WEBSITES ON FIRE*
Fire Risk Research and promoting the effective use of transfer. Online shopping with
On average every year, wildfires wildland fire as a management tool free delivery provides users with
burn 17,300 acres (7,000 ha) in are the goals of New Zealand’s the opportunity to purchase pub-
New Zealand. Reducing the num­ Forest and Rural Fire Research pro- lications, images, videos, and
ber and consequences of wildfires gram. Visitors to the Website can other products. Also included are
enjoy current and archived project many links to various fire
* Occasionally, Fire Management Today briefly news and fire-related information research publications worldwide.
describes Websites brought to our attention by the
wildland fire community. Readers should not con- from around the world. Links are
strue the description of these sites as in any way
exhaustive or as an official endorsement by the
provided to the latest research pub- Found at <http://www.forestre­
USDA Forest Service. To have a Website described, lications, relevant news, and gener- search.co.nz/topic.asp?topic=
contact the managing editor, Hutch Brown, at
USDA Forest Service, Office of the Chief, Yates al information. Current projects Fire+Risk+Research&title=Fire+
Building, 4th Floor Northwest, 201 14th Street, include fire behavior modeling, tus- Risk+Research>
SW, Washington, DC 20024, 202-205-0878 (tel.),
202-205-1765 (fax), [email protected] (e-mail). sock fire ecology, and technology

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

45
A NEW TOOL FOR MOPUP AND
OTHER FIRE MANAGEMENT TASKS
Bill Gray

E
ver dream of a mopup tool that to tailor flow rate, nozzle pressure,
could blast both above- and Ever dream of a single and throw distance to a given situa­
below-ground fires, without the mopup tool that could tion. Table 1 shows flow rates at
need for high pressure? Well, dream four different nozzle pressures.
blast both above- and
no more. The mopup nozzle* (fig. Table 2 shows that horizontal
1) can spray either water or wet air- below-ground fires? throw distances are good, consider­
aspirated class A fire foam on Well, dream no more. ing the relatively low pressures
above-ground fires and inject either used. Vertical throw distances,
substance into the ground to extin­ by eyeball estimate, are about
guish fires burning up to 3 feet (1 be removed with a shovel. The two-thirds of horizontal throw
m) deep—all without requiring the same washing action can inject distances.
use of high pressure. class A foam solution and flood
underground areas of burning and The key advantage of using low-
Injection Device smoldering leaves and other duff. pressure nozzles for mopup is their
This is the first firefighting tool ability to connect to the end of very
that injects water into underground
Mopup Flexibility long hoselines that are, in turn,
areas of burning material. The old The mopup nozzle comes in seven connected to low-pressure pumps
method of extinguishing ground different sizes, allowing firefighters that draft water from small water
fires requires two firefighters: a tanks containing from 50 to 200
hose operator to spray the ground gallons (189–757 L). Long hose-
and a second firefighter to remove lines have advantages for mopup
the top 2 to 3 inches (5–8 cm) of work. They can be followed from
smoldering material with a shovel. truck to mopup crew, allowing the
The two-step process is repeated crew to follow the hoseline back to
until a depth of about 2 feet (60 the truck. This is particularly help­
cm) is reached. ful at night or when smoke has
reduced ground-level visibility.
With a mopup nozzle, one firefight­ Long hoses also offer weight and
er can do the job alone. Connected cost advantages. The 5/8-inch (16­
to a hose, the mopup nozzle can mm) and 3/4-inch (19-mm) fire-
inject water deep into hard clay soil hoses are particularly lightweight
around tree roots (fig. 1), flooding and inexpensive.
and extinguishing any burning
material. If the tree roots must be Long hoselines do allow pressure
exposed, the nozzle’s underground loss, which varies with each manu­
washing action liquifies the clay, facturer. The pressure losses shown
turning it into mud that can easily in table 3 are average values that
can be used with reasonable accu­
Figure 1—The new mopup nozzle. The noz­
racy to estimate pressure losses in
Bill Gray is a retired civil engineer and the
owner of Bill Gray, San Antonio, TX. zle connected to the hose has washed its long hoselines. The values in table
way 15 inches (38 cm) deep into the hard 1 and 3 suggest the usefulness of
* The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this clay soil around the tree roots. The clay the mopup nozzle for operations
publication is for the information and convenience of has turned to mud, which can easily be
the reader. Such use does not constitute an official removed with a shovel. The nozzle can also with long hoselines.
endorsement of any product or service by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are
inject class A foam solution into under­
responsible for the technical accuracy of the material ground areas. Photographer: Bill Gray, San
presented in Fire Management Today. Antonio, TX, 2004.

Fire Management Today

46
For example, suppose you have a Table 1—Flow rates (gallons per minute) for seven nozzles at
pickup truck with a 100-gallon four nozzle pressures.
(379-L) water tank, a pumping
Nozzle pressure (pounds per square inch)
capacity of 100 pounds per square
inch (psi) (7 kg/cm2), 1,000 feet Nozzle size 40 100 200 300
(305 m) of 3/4-inch (19-mm) hose, 6 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.6
and another 1,000 feet (305 m) of 7 0.8 1.3 1.8 2.2
5/8-inch (16-mm) hose. Also sup­ 8 1.0 1.6 2.2 2.7
pose that you want to limit the flow
9 1.5 2.4 3.4 4.1
rate to 2 gallons (7.6 L) per minute.
At that rate, the friction loss in the 10 2.0 3.2 4.5 5.5
3/4-inch (19-mm) hose is 7 psi (0.5 11 2.5 4.0 5.6 6.9
kg/cm2) and the loss in the 5/8-inch 12 3.0 4.7 6.7 8.2
(16-mm) hose is 14 psi (1 kg/cm2),
for a combined friction loss of 21 Table 2—Horizontal throw distances (feet) for seven nozzles
psi (1.5 kg/cm2). With a 100-psi (7­ at four nozzle pressures.*
kg/cm2) pump, you still have a noz­
zle pressure of 79 psi (5.6 kg/cm2). Nozzle pressure (pounds per square inch)
The size 9 nozzle would probably Nozzle size 40 100 200 300
meet your requirements. 6 27 34 39 41
7 30 38 43 45
More Than Mopup 8 31 40 46 48
In addition to mopup work, the
9 33 42 48 51
nozzles are useful for controlling
pasture burning and other small 10 34 44 50 53
prescribed fires. Foresters, ranch­ 11 36 46 53 56
ers, farmers, and park rangers who 12 38 49 56 59
drive pickup trucks with a small * Horizontal throw distances are obtained when the solid-stream nozzle is pointed upward
water tank capacity will find the at an angle of 30 degrees above horizontal.
nozzles particularly useful. When
foam concentrate is added to the Table 3—Pressure loss (pounds per square inch) per hundred
tank water, the air-aspirated foam feet of hose at varying flow rates for three hose sizes.
produced is 10 times more effective
Flow rate Hose diameter
than water alone.
(gal/min) 5/8 in 3/4 in 1 in
All mopup nozzles include a brass 1 0.4 0.2 0.1
nozzle tip that produces a solid 2 1.4 0.7 0.1
stream of wet air-aspirated fire 3 3.2 1.5 0.3
foam, a 3-foot (0.9-m) nozzle rod, a
4 5.8 2.5 0.6
nozzle handle, a 90-degree ball
valve, a high-pressure stainless 5 9.0 3.8 0.9
steel swivel, and an upstream con­ 6 13.0 5.3 1.3
nection with a 3/4-inch (19-mm) 7 17.6 7.1 1.7
female firehose thread. The materi­ 8 23.0 9.2 2.2
als are brass, stainless steel, galva­
nized steel, and galvanized mal­
cm). The nozzles weigh only 3.2 contact Bill Gray, Oakdell Way
leable iron.
pounds (1.5 kg), making them easy Apartments, 6020 Danny Kaye
to use for long periods of time. The #2302, San Antonio, TX 78240,
These nonplastic materials provide
nozzles are designed for a maxi- 210-614-4020 (tel.),
years of useful service and make
mum working pressure of 300 psi 210-610-4080 (fax),
the nozzles indestructible. The
(21 kg/cm2). For more information, [email protected] (e-mail). ■
overall length is 46 inches (117

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

47
DEVELOPING THE FIRE SERVICE
WORKFORCE THROUGH MENTORING
Joette Borzik

T
he fire management workforce
appears to be shrinking. Many A mentor can foster insight, identify experience
experienced employees will needed, and expand career horizons.
soon retire, and the pool of quali­
fied replacements is small. Job-
related demands on employees, creates some formal accountability. An orientation-and-training session
family responsibilities, and low Additionally, an individual develop­ is mandatory for all program par­
overtime pay have decreased the ment plan is prepared to document ticipants. The 3-day session is often
willingness of many employees to the steps needed to accomplish the first meeting for a mentor and
take part in incident response identified goals and to track accom­ mentee. Team-building exercises
(Hyde 1999). Additionally, the plishments. The mentoring part­ and icebreakers help foster an envi­
length of time required to recruit ners set the scope and content of ronment of learning and comfort.
and train an employee for an upper their relationship.
management position in incident Evaluating Results
response—17 to 22 years (GAO The program identifies potential The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
1999)—makes it difficult to ensure mentors and mentees through an set up a process for evaluating the
that the next generation of fire application process. The program’s Fire Management Mentoring
leaders will be ready when needed. steering committee, six representa­ Program. The evaluation is based
tives from different levels in the fire on an online form that program
In 1999, the USDI Fish and Wildlife workforce and a mentoring expert, participants fill out biannually, a
Service developed a Fire Manage­ compares applications to selection cost-effective method of data collec­
ment Mentoring Program to help criteria and makes prospective tion. Steering committee members
train and develop potential fire matches. also make informal telephone calls
incident responders and future fire to participants to assess program
leaders. The program taps knowl­ After a draft list of selections is effectiveness, but this method can
edge and experience within the made, regional fire managers com­ be tedious, costly, and not as effec­
agency in a personal, interactive ment on the prospective pairing. A tive.
manner. final list is approved, and individu­
als are notified of the selections. Many factors must be considered
Fire Management when drawing conclusions about
Mentoring Program Selected participants are asked to the success or failure of a mentor­
Enrollment in the Fire Management take a personality-type indicator ing program. The success of any
Mentoring Program is a 2-year vol­ test. The personality-type testing is mentoring program is a combina­
untary commitment. The relation­ a communication tool—there is no tion of desired outcomes. The val­
ship can end whenever one of the right or wrong type, and there are ues measured, the assessment
partners believes it is no longer no better or worse combinations of instruments, and the approach all
productive. types in work or relationships influence the findings (Murray and
(Myers 1998). The results of the Owen 1991).
The program uses a partnership test are shared with the partici­
agreement that, while not binding, pants at the orientation and train­ The first online program evaluation
ing session and are available for for the Fire Management
Joette Borzik is a national fire training and
participants to share with their Mentoring Program was in 2001,
qualifications specialist for the USDI U.S. assigned mentor or mentee. with a followup in 2002. Results
Fish and Wildlife Service, National
Conservation Training Center,
Shepherdstown, WV.

Fire Management Today

48
indicate that nearly 90 percent of Strategic planning is based on the References
the individuals who responded had recognition that we must make the GAO (Government Accounting Office).
an excellent or good mentoring commitment and invest in our 1999. Federal wildfire activities: Current
relationship. employees if a wildland fire organi­ strategy and issues needing attention.
Report to the Chairman, Subcommittee
zation is to succeed. on Forests and Forest Health, Committee
New Workforce on Resources, House of Representatives.
GAO/RCED–99–233.
Generation Hyde, A.C. 1999. Where have all the fire­
The value of the Fire Management The desire for fighters gone? A proposal to project the
Mentoring Program is the extent to mentoring comes from impacts of current workforce demograph­
ics, training cycles, and worker availabili­
which it contributes to the overall all levels of the fire ty for wildland firefighting across Federal
success of the U.S. Fish and management workforce, agencies and the wildland fire communi­
Wildlife Service’s wildland fire ty. Preliminary proposal to the National
organization. The mentoring pro­
and employees at all Wildfire Coordinating Group via USDA
Forest Service, Fire and Aviation
gram is helping to address some of levels can participate. Management, and USDI National Park
the issues that the agency faces as Service. Washington, DC: The Brookings
Institution.
new generations move into the fire Murray, M.; Owen, M. A. 1991. Beyond the
management workforce and more For additional information about
myths and magic of mentoring: How to
experienced employees retire. the value and challenges of a men­ facilitate an effective mentoring program.
Although the mentoring program is toring relationship, contact Joette San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc.
Borzik, National Conservation Myers, I.B. 1998. Introduction to type: A
not a career placement program, it guide to understanding your results on
is likely to enhance an employee’s Training Center, 698 Conservation the Myers-Briggs type indicator. Palo
professional development. Way, Shepherdstown, WV 25443, Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press,
304-876-7749 (tel.), 304-876-7751 Inc. ■

The desire for mentoring comes (fax), [email protected]

from all levels of the fire workforce. (e-mail).

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

49
GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
Editorial Policy Paper Copy. Type or word-process the manu­ essential to the understanding of articles. Clearly
Fire Management Today (FMT) is an internation­ script on white paper (double-spaced) on one label all photos and illustrations (figure 1, 2, 3,
al quarterly magazine for the wildland fire com­ side. Include the complete name(s), title(s), affili­ etc.; photograph A, B, C, etc.). At the end of the
munity. FMT welcomes unsolicited manuscripts ation(s), and address(es) of the author(s), as well manuscript, include clear, thorough figure and
from readers on any subject related to fire man­ as telephone and fax numbers and e-mail infor­ photo captions labeled in the same way as the
agement. Because space is a consideration, long mation. If the same or a similar manuscript is corresponding material (figure 1, 2, 3; photo­
manuscripts might be abridged by the editor, being submitted elsewhere, include that informa­ graph A, B, C; etc.). Captions should make pho­
subject to approval by the author; FMT does tion also. Authors who are affiliated should sub­ tos and illustrations understandable without
print short pieces of interest to readers. mit a camera-ready logo for their agency, institu­ reading the text. For photos, indicate the name
tion, or organization. and affiliation of the photographer and the year
Submission Guidelines the photo was taken.
Submit manuscripts to either the general man­ Style. Authors are responsible for using wildland
ager or the managing editor at: fire terminology that conforms to the latest stan­ Electronic Files. See special mailing instruc­
dards set by the National Wildfire Coordinating tions above. Please label all disks carefully with
USDA Forest Service Group under the National Interagency Incident name(s) of file(s) and system(s) used. If the man­
Attn: April J. Baily, F&AM Staff Management System. FMT uses the spelling, cap­ uscript is word-processed, please submit a 3-1/2
Mail Stop 1107 italization, hyphenation, and other styles recom­ inch, IBM-compatible disk together with the
1400 Independence Avenue, SW mended in the United States Government paper copy (see above) as an electronic file in one
Washington, DC 20250-1107 Printing Office Style Manual, as required by the of these formats: WordPerfect 5.1 for DOS;
tel. 202-205-0891, fax 202-205-1272 U.S. Department of Agriculture. Authors should WordPerfect 7.0 or earlier for Windows 95;
e-mail: [email protected] use the U.S. system of weight and measure, with Microsoft Word 6.0 or earlier for Windows 95;
equivalent values in the metric system. Try to Rich Text format; or ASCII. Digital photos may
USDA Forest Service keep titles concise and descriptive; subheadings be submitted but must be at least 300 dpi and
Attn: Hutch Brown, Office of Communication and bulleted material are useful and help read­ accompanied by a high-resolution (preferably
Mail Stop 1111 ability. As a general rule of clear writing, use the laser) printout for editorial review and quality
1400 Independence Avenue, SW active voice (e.g., write, “Fire managers know…” control during the printing process. Do not
Washington, DC 20250-1111 and not, “It is known…”). Provide spellouts for embed illustrations (such as maps, charts, and
tel. 202-205-0878, fax 202-205-0885 all abbreviations. Consult recent issues (on the graphs) in the electronic file for the manuscript.
e-mail: [email protected] World Wide Web at Instead, submit each illustration at 1,200 dpi in a
<http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/planning/ separate file using a standard interchange format
Mailing Disks. Do not mail disks with electronic firenote.htm>) for placement of the author’s such as EPS, TIFF, or JPEG, accompanied by a
files to the above addresses, because mail will be name, title, agency affiliation, and location, as high-resolution (preferably laser) printout. For
irradiated and the disks could be rendered inop­ well as for style of paragraph headings and refer­ charts and graphs, include the data needed to
erable. Send electronic files by e-mail or by ences. reconstruct them.
courier service to:
Tables. Tables should be logical and understand­ Release Authorization. Non-Federal
USDA Forest Service able without reading the text. Include tables at Government authors must sign a release to allow
Attn: Hutch Brown, 2CEN Yates the end of the manuscript. their work to be in the public domain and on the
201 14th Street, SW World Wide Web. In addition, all photos and
Washington, DC 20024 Photos and Illustrations. Figures, illustrations, illustrations require a written release by the pho­
overhead transparencies (originals are prefer­ tographer or illustrator. The author, photo, and
If you have questions about a submission, please able), and clear photographs (color slides or illustration release forms are available from
contact the managing editor, Hutch Brown. glossy color prints are preferable) are often General Manager April Baily.

Contributors Wanted
We need your fire-related articles and photographs for Fire Management Today! Feature articles should be up to about 2,000
words in length. We also need short items of up to 200 words. Subjects of articles published in Fire Management Today include:
Aviation Firefighting experiences
Communication Incident management
Cooperation Information management (including systems)
Ecosystem management Personnel
Equipment/Technology Planning (including budgeting)
Fire behavior Preparedness
Fire ecology Prevention/Education
Fire effects Safety
Fire history Suppression
Fire science Training
Fire use (including prescribed fire) Weather
Fuels management Wildland–urban interface
To help prepare your submission, see “Guidelines for Contributors” in this issue.

Fire Management Today

50
PHOTO CONTEST ANNOUNCEMENT
Fire Management Today (FMT) time. No photos judged in previous • A panel of experienced judges
invites you to submit your best fire- FMT contests may be entered. determines the winners. Its deci­
related photos to be judged in our • You must have the right to grant sion is final.
annual competition. Judging begins the Forest Service unlimited use of • We will eliminate photos from
after the first Friday in March of each the image, and you must agree that competition if they are obtained by
year. the image will become public illegal or unauthorized access to
domain. Moreover, the image must restricted areas; lack detailed cap­
Awards not have been previously pub­ tions; have date stamps; show
All contestants will receive a CD with lished. unsafe firefighting practices
the images remaining after technical • We prefer original slides or nega­ (unless that is their express pur­
review. The CD will identify the win­ tives; however, we will accept pose); or are of low technical quali­
ners by category. Winning photos duplicate slides or high-quality ty (for example, have soft focus or
will appear in a future issue of FMT. prints (for example, those with show camera movement).
In addition, winners in each category good focus, contrast level, and • You must complete and sign the
will receive: depth of field). Note: We will not release statement granting the
return your slides, negatives, or USDA Forest Service rights to use
• 1st place—Camera equipment prints. your image(s). Mail your completed
worth $300 and a 16- by 20-inch • We will also accept digital images if release with your entry or fax it
framed copy of your photo. the image was shot at the highest (970-295-5815) at the same time
• 2nd place—An 11- by 14-inch resolution using a camera with at you e-mail digital images.
framed copy of your photo. least 2.5 megapixels or if the image
• 3rd place—An 8- by 10-inch was scanned at 300 lines per inch Mail entries to:
framed copy of your photo. or equivalent with a minimum out­ USDA Forest Service
put size of 5 x 7. Digital image files Fire Management Today Photo
Categories should be TIFFs or highest quality Contest
JPGs. Madelyn Dillon
• Wildland fire • You must indicate only one compe­
• Prescribed fire 2150 Centre Avenue
tition category per image. To Building A, Suite 361
• Wildland-urban interface fire ensure fair evaluation, we reserve
• Aerial resources Fort Collins, CO 80526
the right to change the competi­ or
• Ground resources tion category for your image.
• Miscellaneous (fire effects; fire e-mail images and captions to:
• You must provide a detailed cap­ [email protected] and
weather; fire-dependent communi­ tion for each image. For example:
ties or species; etc.) fax signed release form to
A Sikorsky S–64 Skycrane delivers 970-295-5815 (attn: Madelyn Dillon)
retardant on the 1996 Clark Peak
Rules Fire, Coronado National Forest, Postmark Deadline
• The contest is open to everyone. AZ. Photo: name, professional affil­
You may submit an unlimited iation, town, state, year image First Friday in March
number of entries taken at any captured.

Sample Photo Release Statement

Enclosed is/are (number) image(s) for publication by the USDA Forest Service. For each image
submitted, the contest category is indicated and a detailed caption is enclosed. I have the authority to give per­
mission to the Forest Service to publish the enclosed image(s) and am aware that, if used, it/they will be in the
public domain and appear on the World Wide Web.

Contact information:
Name
Institutional affiliation, if any
Home or business address

Telephone number E-mail address

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

51
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