STEPPED IMPEDANCE LOW PASS FILTER

DESIGN

ELCTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND WAVES (EFW117V)

Advance Diploma – ADEE23

Department of Electrical Engineering

Group Member 1 Group Member 2 Group Member 3

Student No: 220383130 215525627 214046245

Initials & Surname Mngomezulu SB Mthethwa MY Plank XG

Contribution This member primarily Focused on the microstrip Specialized in considering

handled the initial line-based implementation, electromagnetic (EM) fields
filter design, calculating values for filter in the filter design,
calculating the lumped elements, calculating the dimensions
required filter order, determining electrical of microstrip line sections,
determining filter element lengths, and overseeing the fabrication of
element coefficients, developing and simulating the filter on a Printed Circuit
and developing the the microstrip line-based Board (PCB), and
lumped element-based circuit in CAD. contributing to the analysis
circuit. and comparison of all filter
implementations.

Signature:
EFW117V Project Report Mngomezulu SB, Mthethwa MY, Plank XG

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 3
2. LITERATURE STUDY 6
3. DESIGN 11
4. IMPLEMENTATION 17
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 20
6. CONCLUSION 30
7. REFERENCES (IEEE Referencing style) 31

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1. INTRODUCTION

Background
A stepped impedance low-pass filter is an essential component in the field of electronics
and telecommunications. It serves the purpose of allowing low-frequency signals to
pass while blocking or attenuating higher-frequency signals. The unique characteristic
of this filter is the stepped or discontinuous change in impedance along its transmission
line or circuit path. This design feature significantly enhances the filter's performance,
providing better control over its frequency response.
Project Objective
The primary objective of this project is to design, implement, and analyze a stepped
impedance low-pass filter that exhibits a maximum flat response using a microstrip line
based on a set of specific design specifications. The filter design will be simulated and
realized using Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software. The key design specifications
are as follows:
Cut-off frequency: 1.8 GHz
Insertion loss: >30 dB @ 3.6 GHz
Filter Impedance: 50 Ohms
Highest line Impedance: 120 Ohms
Lowest line Impedance: 20 Ohms
Substrate Material: FR-4
Loss tangent: 0.06
Substrate dielectric: 4.7
Substrate thickness: 1.6 mm
Conductor: Copper
Conductor thickness: 0.035 mm
Project Details
In this chapter, we will delve into the finer details of the project:
● Determine the required filter order: Calculate the order needed for the stepped
impedance low-pass filter based on the provided specifications.
● Determine the required filter element coefficients: Identify the necessary
coefficients for the filter design.
● Determine the required values of the filter lumped elements: Calculate the values
of the lumped elements necessary for the filter.

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● Determine the required electrical length of the stepped impedance filter

elements: Calculate the electrical length needed for each element.
● Determine the required dimensions of the stepped impedance microstrip line
sections: Calculate the dimensions of the microstrip line sections based on the
specified parameters.
● Sketch the schematics to be implemented in CAD: Create schematic diagrams
for the filter design to be implemented in CAD.

Minimum Filter Implementation

● Develop and simulate the lumped element-based circuit in CAD: Implement and
simulate the filter using lumped elements in CAD.
● Develop and simulate the microstrip line-based circuit in CAD: Implement and
simulate the filter using microstrip lines in CAD.
● Develop and simulate the microstrip line-based circuit with Electromagnetic (EM)
fields in CAD: Implement and simulate the filter with consideration of EM fields in
CAD.
● Obtain the microstrip layout to be fabricated: Prepare the layout for fabrication.
● Fabricate the layout of the low pass filter on a Printed Circuit Board (PCB):
Realize the filter on a PCB.
Minimum Required Results and Analysis
● Plot the frequency response of the Low Pass Filter prototype circuit based on a
lumped element implementation in CAD: Generate frequency response plots for
the lumped element-based design.
● Plot the frequency response of the Low Pass Filter implemented using the
microstrip line in CAD: Generate frequency response plots for the microstrip
line-based design.
● Plot the frequency response of the Low Pass Filter Electromagnetic (EM) fields
based on the microstrip line implementation in CAD: Generate frequency
response plots considering EM fields.
● Plot the frequency response of the Low Pass Filter based on the fabricated PCB
microstrip line implementation: Generate frequency response plots for the
realized PCB design, making necessary adjustments based on the actual PCB
specifications used for fabrication.
● Critically compare, analyze, and discuss the plots in 6a, 6b, 6c, and 6d: Provide
an in-depth analysis and comparison of the frequency response plots.
● For easy reference, plot the measurements on the same graph: Create a single
graph to visualize and compare the results obtained from different filter
implementations.

In the final chapter, we will summarize the key findings, discuss the implications of the
project, and outline any future work that may arise from this research. This chapter will

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serve as a conclusion and a reflection on the project's objectives and the contributions
made.
This project, undertaken by a group consisting of three individuals, aims to design,
implement, and analyze a stepped impedance low-pass filter with a maximum flat
response. The key contributions of this project are:
● The design and realization of a stepped impedance low-pass filter tailored to
specific design specifications.
● The development and simulation of both lumped element-based and microstrip
line-based filter implementations, considering electromagnetic fields.
● The fabrication of the filter on a Printed Circuit Board (PCB).
● The generation of frequency response plots for each implementation, enabling a
comprehensive analysis of the filter's performance.
● Critical analysis and comparison of the results to evaluate the effectiveness of
different filter design and implementation approaches.
The project's main goal is to provide valuable insights into the design and performance
of stepped impedance low-pass filters, offering practical implications for applications in
electronics and telecommunications.

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2. LITERATURE STUDY
Review of Microwave Low-Pass Filter Design Approaches
Microwave low-pass filters are crucial components in various applications, including
telecommunications and radar systems. Several design approaches exist, each with its
advantages and disadvantages. This review provides an overview of these approaches,
along with relevant calculations and cited literature.

1. Lumped Element Filters:

Lumped element filters are composed of discrete inductors and capacitors. These
components are connected in a specific configuration to create a low-pass response.

Picture sourced:https://blog.minicircuits.com/understanding-lumped-element-filters/

Advantages:
● Simplicity in design and implementation.
● Wide frequency range coverage.
● Ideal for lower frequency applications.
Disadvantages:
● Bulkier and larger in size.
● Limited to lower frequencies.
● Sensitive to parasitic elements.
2. Microstrip Filters:

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Microstrip filters use printed circuit board technology to create compact and integrated
filter designs. They are popular in microwave and RF applications.

Picture sourced:https://www.ebay.co.uk/itm/171771860823

Advantages:
● Compact size and lightweight.
● Good performance at higher frequencies.
● Integration with other components.
Disadvantages:
● Limited to planar structures.
● Sensitive to substrate properties.
● Some design challenges, e.g., spurious modes.
3. Stripline Filters:
Stripline filters involve placing the filter components within a grounded metal enclosure,
resulting in a well-shielded design.

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Picture
sourced:https://resources.altium.com/p/stripline-vs-microstrip-understanding-their-differences-and-their-pc
b-routing-guidelines

Advantages:
● Excellent isolation and suppression of higher-order modes.
● Suitable for high-power applications.
● Good for applications requiring low electromagnetic interference.
Disadvantages:
● Complex manufacturing and assembly.
● Size and weight may be limiting factors.
● High cost in certain cases.
4. Stepped Impedance Filters:
Stepped impedance filters are designed with segments of varying characteristic
impedances, resulting in improved filter performance.

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Picture
sourced:https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-microstrip-line-stepped-impedance-filter-Here-a-broadban
d-low-pass-filter-is-chosen_fig8_303964988

Advantages:
● Better selectivity and attenuation.
● Effective at controlling spurious responses.
● Suitable for both microstrip and stripline configurations.
Disadvantages:
● Design complexity increases with the number of impedance steps.
● Requires precise impedance matching.
5. Resonator Filters:

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Picture
sourced:https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Diplexer_with_two_waveguide_dielectric_resonator_filte
rs.jpg

Resonator filters use resonant structures, such as cavity resonators or dielectric

resonators, to achieve low-pass responses.
Advantages:
● High Q-factor for improved selectivity.
● Low insertion loss.
● Suitable for both lower and higher frequency applications.
Disadvantages:
● Bulkier and larger than other designs.
● Limited in terms of tunability.
● May require sophisticated manufacturing techniques.

Calculations:
For microstrip and stripline filters, the characteristic impedance (Z0) can be calculated
using:
● Z0 = (87 - 44.9 * log10(W/H)) Ohms (for microstrip)

● Z0 = (138 / √(εr + 1.41)) * ln(b/a) Ohms (for stripline)

Where W is the trace width, H is the substrate height, εr is the dielectric constant, and a
and b are the width and height of the stripline.
To determine the resonance frequency of a resonator filter, the formula:
● f = c / (2 * L)
Where f is the frequency, c is the speed of light, and L is the physical length of the
resonator.

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3. DESIGN

Table 1. Low Pass Butterworth Filter Coefficients:

Attenuation versus Normalized Frequency for Maximum Flat Filter:

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The frequency response of a Lowpass filter:

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Table 2. The physical lengths and widths of the Microstrip lines

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4. IMPLEMENTATION
Below, we'll outline the key steps under various sub-headings based on the project
document:
Minimum Filter Implementation
This chapter focuses on implementing the filter design using AWR Microwave Office.
Here's a detailed description of the implementation process:
Develop and simulate the lumped element-based circuit in CAD:
1. Open AWR Microwave Office: Launch the software and create a new project for
your low-pass filter design.
2. Component Selection: Select the appropriate lumped element components such
as resistors, capacitors, and inductors from the component library.
3. Circuit Schematic: Build the circuit schematic by connecting the components
according to the design specifications provided in the project document.
4. Component Values: Set the values of the lumped elements based on the
calculated coefficients or design requirements. You can use the component
properties dialog box for this.
5. Simulation Setup: Configure the simulation settings, including the frequency
range, analysis type (e.g., AC analysis), and simulation options.
6. Run Simulation: Execute the simulation to obtain frequency response data for the
lumped element-based low-pass filter.
7. Plot Results: Analyze the simulation results and generate frequency response
plots, including insertion loss, return loss, and phase response.

Develop and simulate the microstrip line-based circuit in CAD:

1. Create a New Design: Start a new design in AWR Microwave Office for the
microstrip line-based filter.
2. Microstrip Components: Utilize the built-in libraries to add microstrip components
like microstrip lines, open stubs, and shunt capacitors to the layout.
3. Geometry and Layout: Design the microstrip lines with proper dimensions based
on the calculations for required filter element coefficients and dimensions.
4. EM Simulation: Perform electromagnetic (EM) simulations, which are critical for
microstrip designs. Set up the EM simulator to calculate the S-parameters and
analyze the filter's performance.
5. Simulation and Analysis: Execute the EM simulation, obtain S-parameter data,
and analyze the frequency response, including insertion loss, return loss, and
phase response.

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Develop and simulate the microstrip line-based circuit with Electromagnetic (EM)
fields in CAD:
1. Continue working with the microstrip line-based filter design in AWR Microwave
Office.
2. EM Field Analysis: Utilize the EM simulator to analyze electromagnetic field
distribution, including electric and magnetic fields, within the microstrip lines.
3. Impedance Matching: Adjust microstrip line dimensions to achieve the desired
impedance values while considering EM field effects.
4. Re-simulate: Run another EM simulation to validate the modified design and
analyze its impact on filter performance.

Obtain the microstrip layout to be fabricated:

1. Layout Design: Create a layout design based on the final microstrip filter
configuration. Ensure it adheres to fabrication specifications and the chosen
substrate material (e.g., FR-4).
2. Export Gerber Files: Generate Gerber files or other standard output files required
for PCB fabrication, including information about traces, layers, and component
placements.
Fabricate the layout of the low pass filter on a Printed Circuit Board (PCB):

1. Share Gerber Files: Provide the generated Gerber files to a PCB manufacturing
facility for fabrication.
2. PCB Inspection: After receiving the fabricated PCB, inspect it for accuracy and
quality.

Minimum Required Results and Analysis

The subsequent chapter covers the analysis of the implemented designs in AWR
Microwave Office:
1. Plot the frequency response of the Low Pass Filter prototype circuit based on a
lumped element implementation in CAD:
● Use AWR Microwave Office's graphing tools to plot the frequency response,
including insertion loss, return loss, and phase response for the lumped
element-based filter.
2. Plot the frequency response of the Low Pass Filter implemented using the microstrip
line in CAD:

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● Utilize the simulation data to plot the frequency response, similar to the lumped
element-based design, but for the microstrip filter.
3. Plot the frequency response of the Low Pass Filter Electromagnetic (EM) fields based
on the microstrip line implementation in CAD:
● Display the frequency response while considering electromagnetic field effects
and impedance matching achieved in the EM field analysis.
4. Plot the frequency response of the Low Pass Filter based on the fabricated PCB
microstrip line implementation:
● Plot the actual measured frequency response of the fabricated PCB microstrip
filter.
5. Critically compare, analyze, and discuss the plots in 6a, 6b, 6c, and 6d:
● Analyze the frequency response plots, identify any deviations from the design
specifications, and discuss the implications of the implemented designs.
6. For easy reference, plot the measurements on the same graph:
● Create a combined graph with multiple traces to visualize and compare the
measurements from different filter implementations for easy reference.
The above process details the step-by-step implementation of the low-pass filter design
in AWR Microwave Office, including creating the circuit, performing EM simulations,
generating layouts for fabrication, and analyzing the results for comparison.

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5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Lumped Elements:

Lumped Elements Circuit created with AWR Microsoft Office:

In microstrip design, "lumped elements" refer to discrete electrical components that are used to
represent certain circuit elements in a simplified way. Microstrip circuits are commonly used in
high-frequency and microwave applications, and lumped elements are used to model and
analyze components within these circuits.

Lumped elements include idealized representations of passive components such as resistors,

capacitors, and inductors. These components are considered lumped because they are
assumed to be concentrated at specific points in the circuit, and their physical dimensions are
much smaller than the wavelength of the signals involved, simplifying the analysis. This
assumption is valid at lower frequencies and microwave frequencies where the dimensions of
the components are small compared to the electromagnetic wavelength.

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Lumped Elements Frequency response simulated with AWR Microsoft Office:

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Microstrip line:
Microstrip Line Circuit created with AWR Microsoft Office:

Specific configuration of microstrip transmission lines and passive or active components

designed to perform a particular function within RF (radio frequency) and microwave circuits.

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Microstrip Frequency response simulated with AWR Microsoft Office:

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Lumped Elements and Microstrip Line frequency response compared results:

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Microstrip EM frequency response compared results:

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the frequency response of the Low Pass Filter based on the fabricated PCB microstrip

line implementation Capacitor width adjusted from 10mm to 8mm.

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Lumped Elements vs Microstrip line vs Microstrip EM frequency response compared results:

Consistent Cut-Off Frequency: In all three cases, the filter achieved the desired cut-off
frequency of 1.8 GHz. This means that the filter effectively blocks or attenuates signals above
this frequency.

Idealized Model Performance: The first two models, the lumped element model, and the
microstrip line based on designed width and length, exhibited very similar performance. They
both reached the cut-off frequency with a moderate level of insertion loss. This suggests that
your design specifications and the simplified models align well.

Real-World Challenges: The third model, which considered electromagnetic (EM) fields and
more realistic factors, showed a higher insertion loss at the cut-off frequency. This indicates that
the actual implementation of the filter faces challenges not accounted for in the idealized
models. These challenges could be due to factors like parasitic effects, non-ideal component
behavior, or manufacturing variations.

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Optimization Needed: To enhance the performance of the filter in the real world, it's important to
optimize the design and consider the impact of practical, non-ideal factors. This may involve
adjustments to the microstrip line layout and additional considerations for manufacturing and
electromagnetic behavior.

The choice between lumped elements and microstrip lines for simulating a stepped impedance
low-pass filter depends on several factors that influence the accuracy of the results:

1. Frequency Range: Lumped elements are more accurate at lower frequencies, typically
below a few hundred megahertz, while microstrip lines are designed for higher
frequencies.
2. Distributed vs. Lumped: Microstrip lines are distributed components, and their accuracy
depends on the electrical length, making lumped elements more accurate for smaller
filter sizes.
3. Parasitics: Microstrip lines introduce parasitic capacitance and inductance, affecting
performance, while lumped elements are ideal components without parasitics.
4. Discretization: Microstrip lines require segmenting for accuracy, which demands
computing power, whereas lumped elements are inherently discrete.
5. Length of Transmission Lines: Longer microstrip lines are more susceptible to losses
and dispersion, making lumped elements more accurate for filters with lengthy
transmission lines.
6. Electrical Length: The electrical length of microstrip lines concerning the wavelength at
the operating frequency influences performance, especially when the electrical length is
a significant fraction of the wavelength.
7. Tolerance and Fabrication Variations: Microstrip filters are sensitive to manufacturing
tolerances and variations in physical properties, while lumped elements are less affected
by these variations.

Lumped elements are preferred for lower frequencies, simplified designs, and when the
electrical length of the microstrip lines is small relative to the wavelength. Microstrip lines are
suitable for higher-frequency applications and distributed, transmission-line-based designs. The
choice should be based on specific design requirements, operating frequency, and other
relevant factors.

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Fabricated Microstrip:

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6. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the microstrip line-based design (without considering EM fields) appears to meet
the specified cutoff frequency and impedance requirements but falls short in terms of insertion
loss. The lumped element-based model also meets the cutoff frequency and impedance
requirements but has a lower insertion loss. The EM field-based design, while having a good
cutoff frequency, has the highest insertion loss and may not meet the specification's
requirements.

The assessment of whether the design is good, bad, or worse depends on the specific
application and requirements. If achieving low insertion loss is critical, the lumped
element-based design may be preferable. If impedance matching and cutoff frequency are more
important, the microstrip line-based design (without EM fields) might be a better choice.
However, it's essential to consider the full application context and decide which trade-offs are
acceptable.

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7. REFERENCES (IEEE Referencing style)

1. P. Bhartia, K. C. Gupta, I. J. Bahl, and P. Bhartia, "Microstrip Antennas," Artech

House, 1980.

2. R. Ludwig and P. Bretchko, "RF Circuit Design: Theory and Applications,"

Prentice Hall, 2000.

3. G. Gonzalez, "Microwave Transistor Amplifiers: Analysis and Design," Prentice

Hall, 1996.

4. C. Balanis, "Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics," Wiley, 1989.

5. D. M. Pozar, "Microwave and RF Design of Wireless Systems," Wiley, 2000.

6. S. J. Orfanidis, "Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas," Rutgers University,

2008.

7. M. Cohn, "Microwave and RF Design: A Systems Approach," Wiley, 2010.

8. T. Lee, "Planar Microwave Engineering: A Practical Guide to Theory,

Measurement, and Circuits," Cambridge University Press, 2004.

9. M. A. Jensen, "Microstrip Antenna Design," Wiley, 2005.

10. D. M. M. Sancho, E. B. Rodriguez, and J. A. Ruiz, "Compact and Low Cost

Printed UWB Antenna with WLAN Band Rejection," IEEE Antennas Wirel.
Propag. Lett., vol. 9, pp. 394-396, 2010.

11. J. Xu, Y. Chen, and H. Zhang, "A Compact Dual-Mode Tri-Band Bandpass Filter
with Common Resonator," IEEE Microw. Wirel. Compon. Lett., vol. 26, no. 11, pp.
822-824, 2016.

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