Heat Transfer

There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation.
Basic Heat-Transfer Rate Equations
Conduction
Fourier's Law of Conduction
: dT
Q =- kA dx
where
:
Q = rate of heat transfer (W)
k = thermal conductivity [W/(m•K)]
A = surface area perpendicular to direction of heat transfer (m2)
Convection
Newton's Law of Cooling

Q = hA _Tw − T3 j
:

where
h convection heat-transfer coefficient of the uid W m2•K)]
A = convection surface area (m2)
Tw = wall surface temperature (K)
T bulk uid temperature
Radiation
The radiation emitted by a body is given by
:
Q = εσAT 4
where
= emissivity of the body
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 × 10-8 W/(m2•K4)
A = body surface area (m2)
T = absolute temperature (K)

Conduction
Conduction Through a Plane Wall
: − kA _T2 − T1 i
Q= L k
T1

where T2
A wall surface area normal to heat ow m2)
L = wall thickness (m) Q
L
T1 = temperature of one surface of the wall (K)
T2 = temperature of the other surface of the wall (K)

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Conduction Through a Cylindrical Wall

T1 Q

T2
r1
k
r2
: 2πkL _T1 − T2 i
Q=
ln d r 2 n
r Cylinder (Length = L)
1

Critical Insulation Radius

h∞

r insulation
k k insulation
rcr = insulation
h3

Thermal Resistance (R)

: ∆T
Q= R
total

Resistances in series are added:

Rtotal = ΣR
where
Plane Wall Conduction Resistance (K/W):
L
R = kA

where L = wall thickness

Cylindrical Wall Conduction Resistance (K/W):

ln d r2 n
r
1
R = 2πkL

where L = cylinder length

Convection Resistance (K/W) :

R= 1
hA

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Composite Plane Wall

Fluid 1 kA kB Fluid 2
T∞1 T1 T∞2
h1 h2
T2

Q
1 LA LB 1
h1 A kA A kB A h2 A
T3
Q LA LB
T∞1 T1 T2 T3 T∞2

To evaluate surface or intermediate temperatures:

: T −T T −T
Q = 1 R 2 = 2R 3
A B

Transient Conduction Using the Lumped Capacitance Model

Fluid
The lumped capacitance model is valid if
h, T∞
hV
Biot number, Bi = kA 1 0.1 Body
s
where
h convection heat-transfer coefficient of the uid W m2•K)] As
ρ, V, c P, T
V = volume of the body (m3)
k = thermal conductivity of the body [W/(m•K)]
As = surface area of the body (m2)

Constant Fluid Temperature

If the temperature may be considered uniform within the body at any time, the heat-transfer rate at the body
surface is given by

Q = hAs _T − T3 i =− ρV _cP ic dt m
: dT

where
T = body temperature (K)
T uid temperature
= density of the body (kg/m3)
cP = heat capacity of the body [J/(kg•K)]
t = time (s)

The temperature variation of the body with time is

T − T3 = _Ti − T3 j e
− βt

hA
β = ρVcs
P
where
1
β= τ

x time constant ^ s h

The total heat transferred (Qtotal) up to time t is

Qtotal = ρVcP _Ti − T j
where Ti = initial body temperature (K)
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Approximate Solution for Solid with Sudden Convection

The time dependence of the temperature at any location within the solid is the same as that of the midplane/centerline/
centerpoint temperature To.
PLANE WALL INFINITE CYLINDER AND SPHERE

!t !t
For Fo > 0.2 For Fo > 0.2
L2 r o2

T ( x, 0) Ti
r T ( r , 0) Ti
T ,h T ,h r*
ro
"
"

T ,h

"
L L
ro
x
x*
L

where
T bulk uid temperature
Ti = initial uniform temperature of solid
To = temperature at midplane of wall, centerline of cylinder, centerpoint of sphere at time t
L = half-thickness of plane wall
x = distance from midplane of wall
ro = radius of cylinder/sphere
r = radial distance from centerline of cylinder/centerpoint of sphere
h convective heat transfer coefficient
t = time
k
= thermal diffusivity = tc This equation is valid only if the specific heat is based on mass.
k = thermal conductivity of solid
density of solid
c specific heat of solid

_To − T3 j / _Ti − T3 j = C1 exp `− g12 Fo j

where C1 and g are obtained from the following table

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Coefficients used in the one-term approximation to the series

solutions for transient one-dimensional conduction
Plane Wall Infinite Cylinder Sphere

ζ1 ζ1 ζ1
Bi* C1 C1 C1
(rad) (rad) (rad)
0.01 0.0998 1.0017 0.1412 1.0025 0.1730 1.0030
0.02 0.1410 1.0033 0.1995 1.0050 0.2445 1.0060
0.03 0.1732 1.0049 0.2439 1.0075 0.2989 1.0090
0.04 0.1987 1.0066 0.2814 1.0099 0.3450 1.0120
0.05 0.2217 1.0082 0.3142 1.0124 0.3852 1.0149
0.06 0.2425 1.0098 0.3438 1.0148 0.4217 1.0179
0.07 0.2615 1.0114 0.3708 1.0173 0.4550 1.0209
0.08 0.2791 1.0130 0.3960 1.0197 0.4860 1.0239
0.09 0.2956 1.0145 0.4195 1.0222 0.5150 1.0268
0.10 0.3111 1.0160 0.4417 1.0246 0.5423 1.0298
0.15 0.3779 1.0237 0.5376 1.0365 0.6608 1.0445
0.20 0.4328 1.0311 0.6170 1.0483 0.7593 1.0592
0.25 0.4801 1.0382 0.6856 1.0598 0.8448 1.0737
0.30 0.5218 1.0450 0.7465 1.0712 0.9208 1.0880
0.40 0.5932 1.0580 0.8516 1.0932 1.0528 1.1164
0.50 0.6533 1.0701 0.9408 1.1143 1.1656 1.1441
0.60 0.7051 1.0814 1.0185 1.1346 1.2644 1.1713
0.70 0.7506 1.0919 1.0873 1.1539 1.3525 1.1978
0.80 0.7910 1.1016 1.1490 1.1725 1.4320 1.2236
0.90 0.8274 1.1107 1.2048 1.1902 1.5044 1.2488
1.0 0.8603 1.1191 1.2558 1.2071 1.5708 1.2732
2.0 1.0769 1.1795 1.5995 1.3384 2.0288 1.4793
3.0 1.1925 1.2102 1.7887 1.4191 2.2889 1.6227
4.0 1.2646 1.2287 1.9081 1.4698 2.4556 1.7201
5.0 1.3138 1.2402 1.9898 1.5029 2.5704 1.7870
6.0 1.3496 1.2479 2.0490 1.5253 2.6537 1.8338
7.0 1.3766 1.2532 2.0937 1.5411 2.7165 1.8674
8.0 1.3978 1.2570 2.1286 1.5526 1.7654 1.8921
9.0 1.4149 1.2598 2.1566 1.5611 2.8044 1.9106
10.0 1.4289 1.2620 2.1795 1.5677 2.8363 1.9249
20.0 1.4961 1.2699 2.2881 1.5919 2.9857 1.9781
30.0 1.5202 1.2717 2.3261 1.5973 3.0372 1.9898
40.0 1.5325 1.2723 2.3455 1.5993 3.0632 1.9942
50.0 1.5400 1.2727 2.3572 1.6002 3.0788 1.9962
100.0 1.5552 1.2731 2.3809 1.6015 3.1102 1.9990
∞ 1.5707 1.2733 2.4050 1.6018 3.1415 2.0000
*Bi = hL/k for the plane wall and hro/k for the infinite cylinder and sphere.

Source: Incropera, Frank P. and David P. DeWitt, Introduction to Heat Transfer, 4th ed., John Wiley and Sons, 2002, pp. 256–261.

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Fins
For a straight fin with uniform cross section assuming negligible heat transfer from tip ,

where
h convection heat-transfer coefficient of the uid W m2•K)]
P perimeter of exposed fin cross section m
k fin thermal conductivity W m•K)]
Ac fin cross-sectional area m2)
Tb temperature at base of fin
T uid temperature

A
Lc = L + c , corrected length of fin m
P

Rectangular Fin

T∞ , h
P = 2w + 2t
Ac = w t
t
L w
Tb

Pin Fin

T∞ , h P= π D
πD 2
Ac =
D 4

L
Tb

Convection
Terms
D = diameter (m)
h average convection heat-transfer coefficient of the uid W m2•K)]
L = length (m)
Nu = average Nusselt number
cP µ
Pr = Prandtl number = k
um mean velocity of uid m s
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u free stream velocity of uid m s

dynamic viscosity of uid kg m•s)]
density of uid kg m3)
External Flow
n all cases, evaluate uid properties at average temperature between that of the body and that of the owing uid.
Flat Plate of Length L in Parallel Flow
ρu3 L
ReL = µ
hL
Nu L = k = 0.6640 Re1L 2 Pr1 3 a ReL 1 10 5 k

hL
Nu L = k = 0.0366 Re 0L.8 Pr1 3 a ReL 2 10 5 k

Cylinder of Diameter D in Cross Flow

ρu3 D
ReD = µ
hD
Nu D = k = C Re nD Pr1 3
where
ReD C n
1–4 0.989 0.330
4 – 40 0.911 0.385
40 – 4,000 0.683 0.466
4,000 – 40,000 0.193 0.618
40,000 – 250,000 0.0266 0.805

Flow Over a Sphere of Diameter, D

hD
Nu D = k = 2.0 + 0.60 Re1D 2 Pr1 3
_1 1 ReD 1 70, 000; 0.6 1 Pr 1 400 i

Internal Flow
tumD
ReD = n

Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes

For laminar ow eD < 2300), fully developed conditions
NuD . uniform heat ux
NuD = 3.66 (constant surface temperature)

For laminar ow eD < 2300), combined entry length with constant surface temperature
1 3 0.14
NuD = 1.86 f
ReD Pr e o
L p
nb
ns
D
where
L = length of tube (m)
D = tube diameter (m)
b dynamic viscosity of uid kg m•s at bulk temperature of uid Tb
s dynamic viscosity of uid kg m•s)] at inside surface temperature of the tube Ts

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Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes

RS V
Dittus-Boelter Equation SS0.7 # Pr # 160WWW
S W
NuD = 0.023 ReD4 5 Pr n where SSS ReD L 10, 000 WWW
SS L W
S D L 10 WW
T X
where
n = 0.4 for heating
n = 0.3 for cooling
should be used for small to moderate temperature differences
RS V
Sieder-Tate Equation 0.14
SS0.7 # Pr # 16, 700WWW
S W
NuD = 0.027 ReD4 5 Pr1 3 e n o
n
where SSS ReD L 10, 000 WWW
s SS L WW
S D L 10 W
T X
should be used for ows characteri ed by large property variations.
Source: Incropera, Frank P. and David P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 3rd ed., Wiley, 1990, p. 496.

Noncircular Ducts
In place of the diameter, D, use the equivalent (hydraulic) diameter (DH defined as
4 # cross-sectional area
DH = wetted perimeter

Circular Annulus (Do > Di)

In place of the diameter, D, use the equivalent (hydraulic) diameter (DH defined as
DH = Do - Di

Liquid Metals (0.003 < Pr < 0.05)

NuD = 6.3 + 0.0167 Re0D.85 Pr0.93 uniform heat ux

NuD = 7.0 + 0.025 Re0D.8 Pr0.8 (constant wall temperature)

Boiling
Evaporation occurring at a solid-liquid interface when
Tsolid > Tsat, liquid
q" = h(Ts – Tsat) = h Te
where Te = excess temperature
Pool Boiling – Liquid is quiescent; motion near solid surface is due to free convection and mixing induced by bubble growth
and detachment.
Forced Convection Boiling – Fluid motion is induced by external means in addition to free convection and bubble-induced mixing.
Sub-Cooled Boiling – Temperature of liquid is below saturation temperature; bubbles forming at surface may condense in
the liquid.
Saturated Boiling – Liquid temperature slightly exceeds the saturation temperature; bubbles forming at the surface are propelled
through liquid by buoyancy forces.

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BOILING REGIMES
FREE
CONVECTION NUCLEATE TRANSITION FILM

ISOLATED JETS AND

BUBBLES COLUMNS
107

q"max C CRITICAL HEAT FLUX, q"max

106
P

q"s (W/m2) 105 B

D
q"min
A LEIDENFROST POINT, q"min
104
ONB
∆Te, A ∆Te, B ∆Te, C ∆Te, D

103
1 5 10 30 120 1,000
∆Te = Ts − Tsat (°C)

Source: Incropera, Frank P. and David P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 3rd ed., Wiley, 1990. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Typical boiling curve for water at one atmosphere: surface heat ux q"s as a function of excess temperature, Te = Ts – Tsat
Free Convection Boiling nsufficient vapor is in contact with the liquid phase to cause boiling at the saturation temperature.
Nucleate Boiling – Isolated bubbles form at nucleation sites and separate from surface; vapor escapes as jets or columns.

For nucleate boiling a widely used correlation was proposed in 1952 by Rohsenow:
g _tl − tv iF cpl _Ts − Tsat i
1/2 3

q: nucleate = nl h fg < > H

v Csf h fg Prln
where
q: nucleate
nucleate boiling heat ux W m2)
l = viscosity of the liquid [kg/(m•s)]
hfg = enthalpy of vaporization (J/kg)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
3
l = density of the liquid (kg/m )
3
v = density of the vapor (kg/m )
= surface tension of liquid−vapor interface (N/m)
cpl specific heat of the liquid kg•°C)]
Ts = surface temperature of the heater (°C)
Tsat saturation temperature of the uid C
Csf = experimental constant that depends on surface− uid combination
Prl = Prandtl number of the liquid
n experimental constant that depends on the uid
Source: Çengel, Yunus A., Heat and Mass Transfer: A Practical Approach, 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007.

Peak Heat Flux

The maximum or critical heat ux C F in nucleate pool boiling:
q max = Ccr h fg 8σgρ 2 v _ρ l − ρ v iB
: 1/4

Ccr is a constant whose value depends on the heater geometry, but generally is about 0.15.
The C F is independent of the uid−heating surface combination, as well as the viscosity, thermal conductivity, and specific
heat of the liquid.
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The CHF increases with pressure up to about one-third of the critical pressure, and then starts to decrease and becomes zero at
the critical pressure.
The CHF is proportional to hfg, and large maximum heat uxes can be obtained using uids with a large enthalpy of
vaporization, such as water.
Values of the coefficient Ccr for maximum heat flux (dimensionless parameter
L* = L[g(ρl − ρv)/σ]1/2

Heater Geometry Ccr Charac. Dimension Range of L*

of Heater, L
Large horizontal flat heater 0.149 Width or diameter L* > 27
Small horizontal flat heater1 18.9 K1 Width or diameter 9 < L* < 20
Large horizontal cyclinder 0.12 Radius L* > 1.2
Small horizontal cyclinder 0.12 L*−0.25 Radius 0.15 < L* < 1.2
Large sphere 0.11 Radius L* > 4.26
Small sphere 0.227 L*−0.5 Radius 0.15 < L* < 4.26
1K = σ/[g(ρ − ρv)Aheater]
1 l

Source: Çengel, Yunus A., Heat and Mass Transfer: A Practical Approach, 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007.

Minimum Heat Flux

inimum heat ux, which occurs at the eidenfrost point, it represents the lower limit for the heat ux in the film boiling
regime.
uber derived the following expression for the minimum heat ux for a large hori ontal plate
σg _ρl − ρv i
1/4

qmin = 0.09 ρv h fg > 2 H

:
_ρl + ρv i

The relation above can be in error by 50% or more.

Transition Boiling apid bubble formation results in vapor film on surface and oscillation between film and nucleate boiling.
Film Boiling Surface completely covered by vapor blanket includes significant radiation through vapor film.
Source: Çengel, Yunus A., Heat and Mass Transfer: A Practical Approach, 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007.

Film Boiling
The heat ux for film boiling on a hori ontal cylinder or sphere of diameter D is given by

gk v3 ρ v _ρl − ρ v i8h fg + 0.4c pv _Ts − Tsat iB

1/4

qfilm = Cfilm > H _Ts − Tsat i

:
µ v D _Ts − Tsat i

Cfilm = *0.62 for horizontal cylinders 4

0.67 for spheres
Source: Çengel, Yunus A., Heat and Mass Transfer: A Practical Approach, 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007.

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Film Condensation of a Pure Vapor

On a Vertical Surface
0.25
ρ l2 gh fg L3
0.943 > H
= hL =
NuL k
l µ k `T − T j
l l sat s

where
l density of liquid phase of uid kg m3)
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
hfg = latent heat of vaporization (J/kg)
L = length of surface (m)
l dynamic viscosity of liquid phase of uid kg s•m)]
kl thermal conductivity of liquid phase of uid W m•K)]
Tsat saturation temperature of uid
Ts = temperature of vertical surface (K)
Note: Evaluate all liquid properties at the average temperature between the saturated temperature Tsat and the surface
temperature Ts.
Outside Horizontal Tubes
0.25
tl2 gh fg D3
Nu D = k = 0.729 > H
hD
n k `T − T j
l l sat s

where D = tube outside diameter (m)

Note: Evaluate all liquid properties at the average temperature between the saturated temperature Tsat and the surface
temperature Ts.

Natural (Free) Convection

Vertical Flat Plate in Large Body of Stationary Fluid
Equation also can apply to vertical cylinder of sufficiently large diameter in large body of stationary uid.

C c L m Ra nL
k
h
where
L = length of the plate (cylinder) in the vertical direction
gb _Ts − T3 j L3
RaL = Rayleigh Number = Pr
o2
Ts = surface temperature (K)
T uid temperature
coefficient of thermal expansion

(For an ideal gas: b = 2 with T in absolute temperature)

Ts + T3
o = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

Range of RaL C n
104 – 109 0.59 1/4
109 – 1013 0.10 1/3

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Long Horizontal Cylinder in Large Body of Stationary Fluid

h = C c D m Ra nD
k

gb _Ts − T3 j D3
RaD = Pr
o2

RaD C n
10 – 102
–3
1.02 0.148
102 – 104 0.850 0.188
104 – 107 0.480 0.250
107 – 1012 0.125 0.333

Heat Exchangers
The rate of heat transfer associated with either stream in a heat exchanger in which incompressible uid or ideal gas with con-
stant specific heats ows is

Q = mcp `Texit − Tinlet j

: :

where
cp = specific heat at constant pressure
:
m mass flow rate
The rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger is
:
Q = UAF∆Tlm
where
A = any convenient reference area (m2)
F = correction factor for log mean temperature difference for more complex heat exchangers (shell and tube
arrangements with several tube or shell passes or cross- ow exchangers with mixed and unmixed ow
otherwise F = 1.
U overall heat-transfer coefficient based on area A and the log mean temperature difference W m2•K)]
Tlm = log mean temperature difference (K)

Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)

For counterflow in tubular heat exchangers
_THo - TCi i - _THi - TCoi
DTlm =
ln d n
THo - TCi
THi - TCo
For parallel flow in tubular heat exchangers
`THo − TCo j − `THi − TCi j
∆Tlm =
ln e THo − TCo o
T −T
Hi Ci

where
Tlm = log mean temperature difference (K)
THi inlet temperature of the hot uid
THo outlet temperature of the hot uid
TCi inlet temperature of the cold uid
TCo outlet temperature of the cold uid
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 Heat Transfer

Heat Exchanger Effectiveness,

:
Q actual heat transfer rate
ε= : =
maximum possible heat transfer rate
Qmax

CH _THi − THo j CC `TCo − TCi j

ε= or ε =
Cmin `THi − TCi j Cmin `THi − TCi j
where
:
C = mcP = heat capacity rate (W/K)
Cmin = smaller of CC or CH

Number of Transfer Units (NTU)

NTU = UA
Cmin
Effectiveness-NTU Relations
C
Cr = min = heat capacity ratio
Cmax
For parallel flow concentric tube heat exchanger
1 - exp 8- NTU ^1 + Cr hB
f=
1 + Cr
ln 81 - f ^1 + Cr hB
NTU = -
1 + Cr
For counterflow concentric tube heat exchanger
1 − exp 9− NTU `1 − Cr jC
ε= _Cr 1 1 i
1 − Cr exp 9− NTU `1 − Cr jC
NTU
ε = 1 + NTU `Cr = 1 j

NTU = C − 1 ln e εC − 1 o _Cr 1 1 i
1 ε−1
r r

ε
NTU = 1 − ε `Cr = 1 j

verall eat-Transfer Coefficient for Concentric Tube and Shell-and-Tube eat Exchangers

ln e Do o R
D
1 = 1 + R fi + i
+
fo
+ 1
UA hiAi Ai 2rkL Ao hoAo
where
Ai = inside area of tubes (m2)
Ao = outside area of tubes (m2)
Di = inside diameter of tubes (m)
Do = outside diameter of tubes (m)
hi convection heat-transfer coefficient for inside of tubes W m2•K)]
ho convection heat-transfer coefficient for outside of tubes W m2•K)]
k = thermal conductivity of tube material [W/(m•K)]
Rfi = fouling factor for inside of tube [(m2•K)/W]
Rfo = fouling factor for outside of tube [(m2•K)/W]
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Radiation
Types of Bodies
Any Body
For any body

where
= absorptivity (ratio of energy absorbed to incident energy)
re ectivity ratio of energy re ected to incident energy
= transmissivity (ratio of energy transmitted to incident energy)

Opaque Body
For an opaque body

Gray Body
A gray body is one for which
, (0 < < 1; 0 < < 1)
where
= the emissivity of the body
For a gray body

Real bodies are frequently approximated as gray bodies.

Black body
A black body is defined as one that absorbs all energy incident upon it. t also emits radiation at the maximum rate for a body of
a particular size at a particular temperature. For such a body

Shape Factor (View Factor, Configuration Factor) Relations

Reciprocity Relations
AiFij = AjFji
where
Ai = surface area (m2) of surface i
Fij shape factor view factor, configuration factor fraction of the radiation leaving surface i that is intercepted
by surface j Fij

Summation Rule for N Surfaces

N
! Fij = 1
j= 1

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Net Energy Exchange by Radiation between Two Bodies

Body Small Compared to its Surroundings
Q12 = εσA `T14 − T 24 j
:

where
:
Q12 = net heat-transfer rate from the body (W)
= emissivity of the body
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant [ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/(m2•K4)]
A = body surface area (m2)
T1 = absolute temperature (K) of the body surface
T2 = absolute temperature (K) of the surroundings

Net Energy Exchange by Radiation between Two Black Bodies

The net energy exchange by radiation between two black bodies that see each other is given by
Q12 = A1 F12 σ `T 14 − T 24 j
:

Net Energy Exchange by Radiation between Two Diffuse-

Gray Surfaces that Form an Enclosure
Generalized Cases
A1 , T1 , ε1

A2 , T2 , ε2

Q12 Q12

A1 , T1 , ε1
A2 , T2 , ε2

: σ `T14 − T 24 j
Q12 = 1 − ε 1 − ε2
1
+ 1 +
ε1 A1 A1 F12 ε 2 A 2

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One-Dimensional Geometry with Thin Low-Emissivity Shield Inserted between Two Parallel Plates

Q12 Radiation Shield

ε3, 1
ε3, 2

A1 , T1,
A2 , T2 ,
ε1 ε2

A3 , T3

: σ `T14 − T 24 j
Q12 = 1 − ε 3, 1 1 − ε 3, 2
1 − ε1 1 − ε2
+ 1 + + + 1 +
ε1 A1 A1 F13 ε 3, 1 A3 ε 3, 2 A3 A3 F32 ε 2 A 2

Reradiating Surface
Reradiating Surfaces are considered to be insulated or adiabatic _Qo R = 0i .

A1 , T1 , ε1 Q12 AR , TR , εR

A2 , T2 , ε2

: σ `T14 − T 24 j
Q12 = 1 − ε 1 − ε2
1
+ 1 +
ε1 A1 −1 ε 2 A2
A1 F12 + =d A F n + d A F nG
1 1
1 1R 2 2R

219 ©2020 NCEES