Cognition

Cognition is the "mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through
thought, experience, and the senses".[2] It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and
processes such as: perception, attention, thought, imagination, intelligence, the formation of
knowledge, memory and working memory, judgment and evaluation, reasoning and computation,
problem-solving and decision-making, comprehension and production of language. Cognitive
processes use existing knowledge to discover new knowledge.

A cognitive model, as illustrated by

Robert Fludd (1619)[1]

Cognitive processes are analyzed from very different perspectives within different contexts, notably
in the fields of linguistics, musicology, anesthesia, neuroscience, psychiatry, psychology, education,
philosophy, anthropology, biology, systemics, logic, and computer science.[3] These and other
approaches to the analysis of cognition (such as embodied cognition) are synthesized in the
developing field of cognitive science, a progressively autonomous academic discipline.

Etymology

The word cognition dates back to the 15th century, where it meant "thinking and awareness".[4] The
term comes from the Latin noun cognitio ('examination', 'learning', or 'knowledge'), derived from the
verb cognosco, a compound of con ('with') and gnōscō ('know'). The latter half, gnōscō, itself is a
cognate of a Greek verb, gi(g)nósko (γι(γ)νώσκω, 'I know,' or 'perceive').[5][6]
Early studies

Despite the word cognitive itself dating back to the 15th century,[4] attention to cognitive processes
came about more than eighteen centuries earlier, beginning with Aristotle (384–322 BCE) and his
interest in the inner workings of the mind and how they affect the human experience. Aristotle
focused on cognitive areas pertaining to memory, perception, and mental imagery. He placed great
importance on ensuring that his studies were based on empirical evidence, that is, scientific
information that is gathered through observation and conscientious experimentation.[7] Two
millennia later, the groundwork for modern concepts of cognition was laid during the Enlightenment
by thinkers such as John Locke and Dugald Stewart who sought to develop a model of the mind in
which ideas were acquired, remembered and manipulated.[8]

During the very early nineteenth century cognitive models were developed both in philosophy—
particularly by authors writing about the philosophy of mind—and within medicine, especially by
physicians seeking to understand how to cure madness. In Britain, these models were studied in the
academy by scholars such as James Sully at University College London, and they were even used by
politicians when considering the national Elementary Education Act 1870 (33 & 34 Vict. c. 75).[9]

As psychology emerged as a burgeoning field of study in Europe, whilst also gaining a following in
America, scientists such as Wilhelm Wundt, Herman Ebbinghaus, Mary Whiton Calkins, and William
James would offer their contributions to the study of human cognition.

Early theorists

Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) emphasized the notion of what he called introspection: examining the
inner feelings of an individual. With introspection, the subject had to be careful with describing their
feelings in the most objective manner possible in order for Wundt to find the information
scientific.[10][11] Though Wundt's contributions are by no means minimal, modern psychologists find
his methods to be too subjective and choose to rely on more objective procedures of
experimentation to make conclusions about the human cognitive process.

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) conducted cognitive studies that mainly examined the function
and capacity of human memory. Ebbinghaus developed his own experiment in which he constructed
over 2,000 syllables made out of nonexistent words (for instance, 'EAS'). He then examined his own
personal ability to learn these non-words. He purposely chose non-words as opposed to real words
to control for the influence of pre-existing experience on what the words might symbolize, thus
enabling easier recollection of them.[10][12] Ebbinghaus observed and hypothesized a number of
variables that may have affected his ability to learn and recall the non-words he created. One of the
reasons, he concluded, was the amount of time between the presentation of the list of stimuli and
the recitation or recall of the same. Ebbinghaus was the first to record and plot a "learning curve"
and a "forgetting curve".[13] His work heavily influenced the study of serial position and its effect on
memory

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) was an influential American pioneer in the realm of psychology.
Her work also focused on human memory capacity. A common theory, called the recency effect, can
be attributed to the studies that she conducted.[14] The recency effect, also discussed in the
subsequent experiment section, is the tendency for individuals to be able to accurately recollect the
final items presented in a sequence of stimuli. Calkin's theory is closely related to the
aforementioned study and conclusion of the memory experiments conducted by Hermann
Ebbinghaus.[15]

William James (1842–1910) is another pivotal figure in the history of cognitive science. James was
quite discontent with Wundt's emphasis on introspection and Ebbinghaus' use of nonsense stimuli.
He instead chose to focus on the human learning experience in everyday life and its importance to
the study of cognition. James' most significant contribution to the study and theory of cognition
was his textbook Principles of Psychology which preliminarily examines aspects of cognition such
as perception, memory, reasoning, and attention.[15]

René Descartes (1596–1650) was a seventeenth-century philosopher who came up with the phrase
"Cogito, ergo sum", which means "I think, therefore I am." He took a philosophical approach to the
study of cognition and the mind, with his Meditations he wanted people to meditate along with him
to come to the same conclusions as he did but in their own free cognition.[16]
Psychology

When the mind makes a

generalization such as the concept of
tree, it extracts similarities from
numerous examples; the
simplification enables higher-level
thinking (abstract thinking).

In psychology, the term "cognition" is usually used within an information processing view of an
individual's psychological functions,[17] and such is the same in cognitive engineering.[18] In the
study of social cognition, a branch of social psychology, the term is used to explain attitudes,
attribution, and group dynamics.[17] However, psychological research within the field of cognitive
science has also suggested an embodied approach to understanding cognition. Contrary to the
traditional computationalist approach, embodied cognition emphasizes the body's significant role in
the acquisition and development of cognitive capabilities.[19][20]

Human cognition is conscious and unconscious, concrete or abstract, as well as intuitive (like
knowledge of a language) and conceptual (like a model of a language). It encompasses processes
such as memory, association, concept formation, pattern recognition, language, attention,
perception, action, problem solving, and mental imagery.[21][22] Traditionally, emotion was not
thought of as a cognitive process, but now much research is being undertaken to examine the
cognitive psychology of emotion; research is also focused on one's awareness of one's own
strategies and methods of cognition, which is called metacognition. The concept of cognition has
gone through several revisions through the development of disciplines within psychology.

Psychologists initially understood cognition governing human action as information processing.

This was a movement known as cognitivism in the 1950s, emerging after the Behaviorist movement
viewed cognition as a form of behavior.[23] Cognitivism approached cognition as a form of
computation, viewing the mind as a machine and consciousness as an executive function.[19]
However; post cognitivism began to emerge in the 1990s as the development of cognitive science
presented theories that highlighted the necessity of cognitive action as embodied, extended, and
producing dynamic processes in the mind.[24] The development of Cognitive psychology arose as
psychology from different theories, and so began exploring these dynamics concerning mind and
environment, starting a movement from these prior dualist paradigms that prioritized cognition as
systematic computation or exclusively behavior.[19]

Piaget's theory of cognitive development

For years, sociologists and psychologists have conducted studies on cognitive development, i.e. the
construction of human thought or mental processes.

Jean Piaget was one of the most important and influential people in the field of developmental
psychology. He believed that humans are unique in comparison to animals because we have the
capacity to do "abstract symbolic reasoning". His work can be compared to Lev Vygotsky, Sigmund
Freud, and Erik Erikson who were also great contributors in the field of developmental psychology.
Piaget is known for studying the cognitive development in children, having studied his own three
children and their intellectual development, from which he would come to a theory of cognitive
development that describes the developmental stages of childhood.[25]
 Stage Age or Period Description[26]

Intelligence is present; motor activity but no symbols; knowledge is developing

yet limited; knowledge is based on experiences/ interactions; mobility allows
Sensorimotor
Infancy (0–2 years) the child to learn new things; some language skills are developed at the end of
stage
this stage. The goal is to develop object permanence, achieving a basic
understanding of causality, time, and space.

Symbols or language skills are present; memory and imagination are developed;
Toddler and Early
Preoperational non-reversible and non-logical thinking; shows intuitive problem solving; begins
Childhood (2–7
stage to perceive relationships; grasps the concept of conservation of numbers;
years)
predominantly egocentric thinking.

Logical and systematic form of intelligence; manipulation of symbols related to

Concrete Elementary and concrete objects; thinking is now characterized by reversibility and the ability to
operational Early Adolescence take the role of another; grasps concepts of the conservation of mass, length,
stage (7–12 years) weight, and volume; predominantly operational thinking; nonreversible and
egocentric thinking

Logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts; Acquires flexibility in

Formal Adolescence and
thinking as well as the capacities for abstract thinking and mental hypothesis
operational Adulthood (12
testing; can consider possible alternatives in complex reasoning and problem-
stage years and on)
solving.

Beginning of cognition

Studies on cognitive development have also been conducted in children beginning from the
embryonal period to understand when cognition appears and what environmental attributes
stimulate the construction of human thought or mental processes. Research shows the intentional
engagement of fetuses with the environment, demonstrating cognitive achievements.[27] However,
organisms with simple reflexes cannot cognize the environment alone because the environment is
the cacophony of stimuli (electromagnetic waves, chemical interactions, and pressure
fluctuations).[28] Their sensation is too limited by the noise to solve the cue problem–the relevant
stimulus cannot overcome the noise magnitude if it passes through the senses (see the binding
problem). Fetuses need external help to stimulate their nervous system in choosing the relevant
sensory stimulus for grasping the perception of objects.[29] The Shared intentionality approach
proposes a plausible explanation of perception development in this earlier stage. Initially, Michael
Tomasello introduced the psychological construct of Shared intentionality, highlighting its
contribution to cognitive development from birth.[30] This primary interaction provides unaware
collaboration in mother-child dyads for environmental learning. Later, Igor Val Danilov developed this
notion, expanding it to the intrauterine period and clarifying the neurophysiological processes
underlying Shared intentionality.[31] According to the Shared intentionality approach, the mother
shares the essential sensory stimulus of the actual cognitive problem with the child.[32] By sharing
this stimulus, the mother provides a template for developing the young organism's nervous
system.[33]

Recent findings in research on child cognitive development [29][31][34][35][36][37][38][39][40] and advances

in inter-brain neuroscience experiments[41][42][43][44][45] have made the above proposition plausible.
Based on them, the shared intentionality hypothesis introduced the notion of pre-perceptual
communication in the mother-fetus communication model due to nonlocal neuronal
coupling.[27][31][33] This nonlocal coupling model refers to communication between two organisms
through the copying of the adequate ecological dynamics by biological systems indwelling one
environmental context, where a naive actor (Fetus) replicates information from an experienced actor
(Mother) due to intrinsic processes of these dynamic systems (embodied information) but without
interacting through sensory signals.[27][31][33] The Mother's heartbeats (a low-frequency oscillator)
modulate relevant local neuronal networks in specific subsystems of both her and the nervous
system of the fetus due to the effect of the interference of the low-frequency oscillator (Mother
heartbeats) and already exhibited gamma activity in these neuronal networks (interference in
physics is the combination of two or more electromagnetic waveforms to form a resultant
wave).[27][31][33] Therefore, the subliminal perception in a fetus emerges due to Shared intentionality
with the mother that stimulates cognition in this organism even before birth.[27][31][33]

Another crucial question in understanding the beginning of cognition is memory storage about the
relevant ecological dynamics by the naive nervous system (i.e., memorizing the ecological condition
of relevant sensory stimulus) at the molecular level – an engram. Evidence derived using optical
imaging, molecular-genetic and optogenetic techniques in conjunction with appropriate behavioural
analyses continues to offer support for the idea that changing the strength of connections between
neurons is one of the major mechanisms by which engrams are stored in the brain.[46]

Two (or more) possible mechanisms of cognition can involve both quantum effects[47] and
synchronization of brain structures due to electromagnetic interference.[48][27][31][33]

Common types of tests on human cognition

Serial position

The Serial-position effect is meant to test a theory of memory that states that when information is
given in a serial manner, we tend to remember information at the beginning of the sequence, called
the primacy effect, and information at the end of the sequence, called the recency effect.
Consequently, information given in the middle of the sequence is typically forgotten, or not recalled
as easily. This study predicts that the recency effect is stronger than the primacy effect, because the
information that is most recently learned is still in working memory when asked to be recalled.
Information that is learned first still has to go through a retrieval process. This experiment focuses
on human memory processes.[49]

Word superiority

The word superiority effect experiment presents a subject with a word, or a letter by itself, for a brief
period of time, i.e. 40 ms, and they are then asked to recall the letter that was in a particular location
in the word. In theory, the subject should be better able to correctly recall the letter when it was
presented in a word than when it was presented in isolation. This experiment focuses on human
speech and language.[50]

Brown–Peterson

In the Brown–Peterson cohomology experiment, participants are briefly presented with a trigram and
in one particular version of the experiment, they are then given a distractor task, asking them to
identify whether a sequence of words is in fact words, or non-words (due to being misspelled, etc.).
After the distractor task, they are asked to recall the trigram from before the distractor task. In
theory, the longer the distractor task, the harder it will be for participants to correctly recall the
trigram. This experiment focuses on human short-term memory.[51]

Memory span

During the memory span experiment, each subject is presented with a sequence of stimuli of the
same kind; words depicting objects, numbers, letters that sound similar, and letters that sound
dissimilar. After being presented with the stimuli, the subject is asked to recall the sequence of
stimuli that they were given in the exact order in which it was given. In one particular version of the
experiment, if the subject recalled a list correctly, the list length was increased by one for that type
of material, and vice versa if it was recalled incorrectly. The theory is that people have a memory
span of about seven items for numbers, the same for letters that sound dissimilar and short words.
The memory span is projected to be shorter with letters that sound similar and with longer
words.[52]

Visual search

In one version of the visual search experiment, a participant is presented with a window that displays
circles and squares scattered across it. The participant is to identify whether there is a green circle
on the window. In the featured search, the subject is presented with several trial windows that have
blue squares or circles and one green circle or no green circle in it at all. In the conjunctive search,
the subject is presented with trial windows that have blue circles or green squares and a present or
absent green circle whose presence the participant is asked to identify. What is expected is that in
the feature searches, reaction time, that is the time it takes for a participant to identify whether a
green circle is present or not, should not change as the number of distractors increases.
Conjunctive searches where the target is absent should have a longer reaction time than the
conjunctive searches where the target is present. The theory is that in feature searches, it is easy to
spot the target, or if it is absent, because of the difference in color between the target and the
distractors. In conjunctive searches where the target is absent, reaction time increases because the
subject has to look at each shape to determine whether it is the target or not because some of the
distractors if not all of them, are the same color as the target stimuli. Conjunctive searches where
the target is present take less time because if the target is found, the search between each shape
stops.[53]

Knowledge representation

The semantic network of knowledge representation systems have been studied in various
paradigms. One of the oldest paradigms is the leveling and sharpening of stories as they are
repeated from memory studied by Bartlett. The semantic differential used factor analysis to
determine the main meanings of words, finding that the ethical value of words is the first factor.
More controlled experiments examine the categorical relationships of words in free recall. The
hierarchical structure of words has been explicitly mapped in George Miller's WordNet. More
dynamic models of semantic networks have been created and tested with computational systems
such as neural networks, latent semantic analysis (LSA), Bayesian analysis, and multidimensional
factor analysis. The meanings of words are studied by all the disciplines of cognitive science.[54]

Metacognition

Metacognition and self directed

learning
Metacognition is an awareness of one's thought processes and an understanding of the patterns
behind them. The term comes from the root word meta, meaning "beyond", or "on top of".[55]
Metacognition can take many forms, such as reflecting on one's ways of thinking, and knowing
when and how oneself and others use particular strategies for problem-solving.[55][56] There are
generally two components of metacognition: (1) cognitive conceptions and (2) cognitive regulation
system.[57][58] Research has shown that both components of metacognition play key roles in
metaconceptual knowledge and learning.[59][60][58] Metamemory, defined as knowing about memory
and mnemonic strategies, is an important aspect of metacognition.[61]

Writings on metacognition date back at least as far as two works by the Greek philosopher Aristotle
(384–322 BC): On the Soul and the Parva Naturalia.[62]

Improving cognition

Physical exercise

Aerobic and anaerobic exercise have been studied concerning cognitive improvement.[63] There
appear to be short-term increases in attention span, verbal and visual memory in some studies.
However, the effects are transient and diminish over time, after cessation of the physical activity.[64]
People with Parkinson's disease has also seen improved cognition while cycling, while pairing it with
other cognitive tasks.[65]

Dietary supplements

Studies evaluating phytoestrogen, blueberry supplementation and antioxidants showed minor

increases in cognitive function after supplementation but no significant effects compared to
placebo.[66][67][68] Another study on the effects of herbal and dietary supplements on cognition in
menopause show that soy and Ginkgo biloba supplementation could improve women's cognition.[69]

Pleasurable social stimulation

Exposing individuals with cognitive impairment (i.e. dementia) to daily activities designed to
stimulate thinking and memory in a social setting, seems to improve cognition. Although study
materials are small, and larger studies need to confirm the results, the effect of social cognitive
stimulation seems to be larger than the effects of some drug treatments.[70]
Other methods

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has been shown to improve cognition in individuals
without dementia 1 month after treatment session compared to before treatment. The effect was
not significantly larger compared to placebo.[71] Computerized cognitive training, utilizing a
computer based training regime for different cognitive functions has been examined in a clinical
setting but no lasting effects has been shown.[72]

See also

Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument

Philosophy portal
Cognitive biology
Psychology portal

Cognitive computing

Cognitive holding power

Cognitive liberty

Cognitive musicology

Cognitive psychology

Cognitive science

Cognitivism

Comparative cognition

Embodied cognition

Cognitive shuffle

Information processing technology and aging

Mental chronometry – i.e., the measuring of cognitive processing speed

Nootropic

Outline of human intelligence – a list of traits, capacities, models, and research fields of human
intelligence, and more.

Outline of thought – a list that identifies many types of thoughts, types of thinking, aspects of
thought, related fields, and more.

Shared intentionality
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Further reading

Ardila A (2018). Historical Development of Human Cognition. A Cultural-Historical

Neuropsychological Perspective. Springer. ISBN 978-9811068867.

Coren S, Ward LM, Enns JT (1999). Sensation and Perception. Harcourt Brace. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-
470-00226-1.

Lycan WG, ed. (1999). Mind and Cognition: An Anthology (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell
Publishing.

Stanovich, Keith (2009). What Intelligence Tests Miss: The Psychology of Rational Thought (https://
archive.org/details/whatintelligence00stan) . New Haven (CT): Yale University Press. ISBN 978-
0-300-12385-2.

External links

Cognition (https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/cognition) An international journal publishing

theoretical and experimental papers on the study of the mind.

Information on music cognition, University of Amsterdam (http://arquivo.pt/wayback/201605221

50143/http%3A//cf.hum.uva.nl/mmm/)

Cognitie.NL (http://www.cognitie.nl/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20111019035923/

http://www.cognitie.nl/) 2011-10-19 at the Wayback Machine Information on cognition research,
Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) and University of Amsterdam (UvA)

Emotional and Decision Making Lab, Carnegie Mellon, EDM Lab (https://web.archive.org/web/200
50405203028/http://computing.hss.cmu.edu/lernerlab/home.php)

The Limits of Human Cognition (http://news.softpedia.com/news/The-Limits-of-Human-Cognitio

n-37388.shtml) – an article describing the evolution of mammals' cognitive abilities
Half-heard phone conversations reduce cognitive performance (https://medicalxpress.com/new
s/2010-05-half-heard-conversations-cognitive.html)

The limits of intelligence (https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-limits-of-intelligenc

e/) Douglas Fox, Scientific American, 14 June 14, 2011.