Lecture #16

Module Part II – Quantum Mechanics No. of

no. lectures
7 Birth of Quantum Mechanics: particle aspect of radiation (blackbody radiation, photoelectric 3
effect, Compton effect), wave aspect of particle (de Broglie’s hypothesis, Davisson-Germer
experiment), wave-particle duality, double-slit experiment
8 Quantum Mechanical Wave Function: wave function, representation of wave function, 2.5
Schrödinger equation, probability density, statistical interpretation, superposition principle,
continuity equation.
9 Quantum Mechanical Operators: observables and operators, linear operators, eigenvalues and 1.5
eigen vectors of operators, Hermitian operators, product of operators, expectation values and
uncertainty relations.
10 Time-Independent Schrodinger Equation: stationary states, free particle solution, bound states 2
11 One Dimensional Problems: 1-D infinite potential well, 1-D finite potential well, and quantum 2
mechanical tunneling.
12 Particle in 1-D lattice, Kronig-Penney Model and the E/k Diagram. 2

1
Double-slit experiments: The case for electrons (Recap)

▪ Which electron passes through what slit?

→ We will keep a light source after the slits and see flashes when electrons interact with light

▪ If the intensity of the light source is high, we see flashes often. → Electrons show particle characteristic

▪ If the intensity is very weak, interference pattern appears again. → Electrons show wave characteristic

▪ When interference pattern forms, we cannot determine which electron passes through what slit. →
Indeterministic nature!
2
Birth of uncertainty principle
▪ Case I

→ Where is the precise location of the wave?

→ What is the wavelength?
ℎ
→ If you know the wavelength, you can obtain the momentum 𝑝 =
𝜆

▪ Case II

→ Where is the precise location of the wave?

→ What is the wavelength?

▪ Conclusion: The more precise a wave’s position is, the less precise is its wavelength and vice versa.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle reads 𝚫𝒙 𝚫𝒑 ≥ ℏ
𝟏
𝒙 𝟐
▪ It is impossible to know both the exact position and exact momentum of an object at the same time
3
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle
▪ If 𝑥-component of momentum is measured with the accuracy of ∆𝑝𝑥 , then the 𝑥-component of the position cannot
ℏ
be measured with accuracy more than ∆𝑥 = 2∆𝑝 .
𝑥
1
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑝𝑥 ≥ ℏ
2
1
Δ𝑦 Δ𝑝𝑦 ≥ ℏ
2
1
Δ𝑧 Δ𝑝𝑧 ≥ ℏ
2
▪ Note that, it is allowed to measure 𝑥 and 𝑝𝑥 separately with arbitrary accuracy. But we cannot measure them
simultaneously with arbitrary accuracy. This is where uncertainty principle comes in.

▪ Uncertainty principle holds for any complementary variables, e.g., Energy (𝐸) and time (𝑡).

𝐸? 𝑡→𝐸 Think about it!

𝑡 + ∆𝑡 → 𝐸 ± ∆𝐸
- Short ∆𝑡 leads to smaller or larger
1 ∆𝐸 ?
∆𝐸∆𝑡 ≥ ℏ - Justify your answer. What is the
2
physical significance ?
4
Uncertainty principle in micro and macro worlds
Problem: Estimate the uncertainty in the position of (a) a neutron moving at 5 × 106 m/sec and (b) a 50 kg person
moving at 2 m/sec.
(a) For neutron
ℏ
∆𝑥 ≥
2∆𝑝
ℏ
=
2𝑚𝑛 𝑣
1.05 × 10−34 J sec −15 m
= = 6.4 × 10
2 × 1.65 × 10−27 kg × 5 × 106 m. sec −1
→ Size of the nucleus

(a) For person

ℏ
∆𝑥 ≥
2∆𝑝
ℏ
=
2𝑚𝑣
1.05 × 10−34 J sec
= −1
= 0.5 × 10−36 m
2 × 50 kg × 2 m. sec
→ Negligible compared to the size of the person
5
Module Part II – Quantum Mechanics No. of
no. lectures
7 Birth of Quantum Mechanics: particle aspect of radiation (blackbody radiation, photoelectric 3
effect, Compton effect), wave aspect of particle (de Broglie’s hypothesis, Davisson-Germer
experiment), wave-particle duality, double-slit experiment
8 Quantum Mechanical Wave Function: wave function, representation of wave function, 2.5
Schrödinger equation, probability density, statistical interpretation, superposition principle,
continuity equation.
9 Quantum Mechanical Operators: observables and operators, linear operators, eigenvalues and 1.5
eigen vectors of operators, Hermitian operators, product of operators, expectation values and
uncertainty relations.
10 Time-Independent Schrodinger Equation: stationary states, free particle solution, bound states 2
11 One Dimensional Problems: 1-D infinite potential well, 1-D finite potential well, and quantum 2
mechanical tunneling.
12 Particle in 1-D lattice, Kronig-Penney Model and the E/k Diagram. 2

6
References

➢ Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, David J. Griffiths and Darrell F. Schroeter

➢ Chapter-1, 1.1: The Schrödinger Equation
➢ Chapter-1, 1.2: The Statistical Interpretation
➢ Chapter-1, 1.3.2: Continuous Variables
➢ Chapter-1, 1.4: Normalization

➢ Quantum Mechanics Concepts and Applications, Nouredine Zettili

➢ Chapter-2, 2.2: The Hilbert Space and Wave Functions
➢ Chapter-2, 2.3: Dirac Notation

7
Schrödinger equation

▪ A problem in classical mechanics:

→ Given: mass and force acting on the
mass

→ We want to know: position at a

particular time

→ We can also know: velocity,

momentum and kinetic energy

▪ Classical Mechanics:
We can determine all the above properties by solving the Newton’s equation with
appropriate initial conditions, i.e. velocity and position at t=0.

𝑑2 𝑥
𝑚 2 = 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

8
Schrödinger equation (continuing)
▪ Quantum Mechanics:
→ In principle, we can determine all the aforementioned properties if we know the wave function
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 of the particle.

→ The wave function Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 can be obtained by solving the following differential equation

𝜕Ψ 𝑥,𝑡 ℏ2 𝜕2 Ψ 𝑥,𝑡
𝑖ℏ = − + 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑡 Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2

→ time dependent Schrodinger equation!

→ What about Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 at a time 𝑡 ?

Answer: We need to know the initial condition, i.e. Ψ 𝑥, 0 at a time 𝑡 = 0

9
Comment on Ψ: Statistical interpretation
▪ Ψ is a continuous function.

▪ It represents the amplitude of the matter wave associates with particle.

▪ Contains the information about the probability with which one would measure a certain dynamical
quantity, but cannot give pre-determined results.

▪ Statistical Interpretation (Born, 1926):

𝑏
න Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 = Probability of finding the particle between 𝑎 and 𝑏 at time 𝑡
𝑎

2
Here, Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = Ψ ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡

→ Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 represents the probability amplitude

𝑎 b
→ Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 2 is the probability density at 𝑥 and 𝑡.
10
Comment on Ψ: Statistical interpretation (continuing)
𝑏
න Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 = Probability of finding the particle between 𝑎 and 𝑏 at time 𝑡
𝑎

2
Here, Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = Ψ ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡

▪ Analogy between Electromagnetism and

Quantum Mechanics ?
𝑎 b

▪ Quantum mechanics only tells you statistical information about the possible measurements, whereas
classical mechanics is completely deterministic.

▪ Particle likely to be found near position A

11
Normalization
▪ All physical wave functions must satisfy the relation
∞ 2
‫׬‬−∞ Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = 1
2
→ Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 is the probability density at 𝑥 and 𝑡.

▪ If Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 is a solution of Schrodinger equation, then 𝐀 Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 will also be the solution. A is any

complex constant, called normalization constant.

▪ A is determined by using the above equation.

▪ The non-normalizable states don’t represent the real physical systems.

▪ If a wave function is normalized at t=0, it will remain normalized at any future time t.

12
Problem
2
A free particle at t=0 is described the wave function Ψ 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑘𝑥 , k is a constant. Find the normalized wave
function of the particle.

Ψ ′ 𝑥 = 𝐴 Ψ 𝑥 represent the normalized wave function.

→ 𝐴 is the normalization constant.

Using the normalization condition, we can write So, the normalized wave function of the particle
is
∞ ∞ 1
‫׬‬−∞ Ψ ′ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬−∞ Ψ ′ 𝑥 ∗ Ψ′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1 2𝑘 4 2
Ψ′ 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑘𝑥
𝜋
∞ 2 ∗ 2
⇒ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝐴∗ 𝑒 −𝑘𝑥 𝐴 𝑒 −𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1

2 ∞ 2
⇒ 𝐴 ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑒 −2𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1

1
2 𝜋 2𝑘 4
⇒ 𝐴 × =1⇒𝐴=
2𝑘 𝜋
13