MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Introduction to Engineering Materials

The Figures used in these slides are taken from:

Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction

by
William D. Callister, Jr.
David G. Rethwisch
Eighth Edition

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 1
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

• Materials drive our society

– Stone Age
– Bronze Age
– Iron Age
– Now?
– Next?

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 2
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Historical perspective of Engineering Materials

Natural materials Processed materials Advanced Materials
 Stone  Pottery Superalloys
 Wood  Metals Advanced materials
 Clay  Polymers Polymers, ceramics,
 Rubber  Composites semiconductors
 Skins

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 3
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

• What is materials science and engineering?

What is Materials Science?

Materials science is the study of the relationship

between the structure and properties of materials

What is Materials Engineering?

Materials engineering applies the knowledge of the

relationship between materials’ structures and properties
in designing the structure of a material to produce a
predetermined set of properties

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 4
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Structure of Materials
Structure refers to the arrangement of the internal components
of the material:
• Subatomic level: arrangement of electrons within individual
atoms and nuclei.
• Atomic level: arrangement of atoms and molecules relative to
one another.
• Microstructure: consist of larger group of atoms and
molecules that are normally agglomerated together and are
observable using microscope.
• Macrostructure: structural features that can be observed with
naked eyes

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 5
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Property of Engineering Materials

 Property of a material relates to its response to a specific
externally imposed stimulus.
 The externally imposed stimulus may be:

1. Mechanical – Mechanical properties relate the response of a

material to an applied load or force
2. Electrical – Electrical properties relate the response of a
material to electric field
3. Thermal – Thermal properties relate the response of a material
to a change in temperature

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 6
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Property of Engineering Materials

4. Magnetic – Magnetic properties shows the response of a
material to application of magnetic field
5. Optical – Optical properties indicate the response of a
material to electromagnetic or light radiation
6. Chemical – Chemical properties show the response of a
material to contact with chemicals.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 7
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Give examples of each of the following:

• Mechanical Properties –
Tensile strength, hardness, Young’s modulus, yield strength

• Electrical Properties –
Electrical conductivity/resistivity, capacitance, dielectric strength

• Thermal Properties –
Thermal conductivity/resistance, heat capacity, melting point, thermal
expansion

• Optical Properties –
Color, absorptivity, transmittance, reflectivity, refractive index, scattering

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 8
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Components of Materials Design

 The four components involved in the design, production and
utilization of engineering materials are processing, structure,
properties and performance
 A linear interrelationship exist between these four
components as shown below

Processing (Examples?) Casting, rolling, forging,

heating and cooling

Structure

Properties

Performance
Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 9
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Structure, Processing, & Properties:

Mechanical
Data obtained from Figs. 10.30(a)
• Properties depend on structure and 10.32 with 4 wt% C
ex: hardness vs. structure of steel composition, and from Fig. 11.14
(d) and associated discussion,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Micrographs adapted from (a)
6 00 Fig. 10.19; (b) Fig. 9.30;(c) Fig.
10.33; and (d) Fig. 10.21,
Hardness (BHN)

30 mm Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

5 00 (c)
4 00 (b)
(a)
4 mm
3 00
30 mm
2 00 30 mm

100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Cooling Rate (ºC/s)
• Processing can change structure
ex: structure vs. cooling rate of steel

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 10
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

OPTICAL
• Transmittance:
-- Aluminum oxide may be transparent, translucent, or
opaque depending on the material structure.

polycrystal: polycrystal:
single crystal low porosity high porosity

Adapted from Fig. 1.2,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(Specimen preparation,
P.A. Lessing; photo by S.
Tanner.)

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 11
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Types of Materials
Materials

Metals Ceramics Polymers/Plastics

• Example, Fe, Al, Mg, Cu • Example: oxides, carbides, • E.g.: plastics and rubbers
• Elements have large nitrides, clay, cement, glasses • Mostly organic compounds
number of free electrons • Good thermal and electrical based on C, H2 and other
• Good conductors insulators non metallic elements
• Opaque • High thermal and corrosion
•Low density but low
• Strong and malleable resistance
mechanical strength
(What does this mean?) • High strength but brittle

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Composite Materials
 Composite materials consist of two or more different
components.
 They are designed to exhibit a good combination of the
properties of the different components.
 Example: Fiberglass reinforced polymers: combines the
flexibility of polymer fibers with the strength of glass

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Semiconductors
 Semi conductors have electrical properties, which are
intermediate between a conductor and insulator
 They are sensitive to minute concentration of impurity atoms
 Examples of semiconductors include Si, Ge, Diamond, GaAs,
etc.
 Semiconductors are used mostly in the electronic industries

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Biomaterials
 Biomaterials are those, which are used to replace diseased
or damaged parts in human body.
 To serve as a biomaterial, a material must fulfill the
following conditions:
a. It must be non-toxic
b. It must be compatible with body tissues

Titanium shaft used to screw artificial teeth into the jaw

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Nanomaterials
 Nanoscale materials are materials with structural features in the
range 1-100 nm.
 A good example is carbon nanotube
 It is the strongest and stiffest material yet discovered.
 Its specific strength is about 48,000 kN·m·kg−1 compared to 154 kN·m·kg−1
of steel.

Carbon nanotube

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Chapter 3: The Structure of Crystalline Solids

The Figures used in these slides are taken from:

Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction

by
William D. Callister, Jr.
David G. Rethwisch

Eighth Edition

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 17
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Materials and Packing

Crystalline materials...
• atoms pack in periodic, regular repeating in 3D
• long range order (LRO)
• typical of: -all metals
-many ceramics
-some polymers crystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.23(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Si Oxygen
Noncrystalline materials...
• atoms have no periodic packing
• long range order is absent
"Amorphous" = Noncrystalline
• typical of: -many polymers
-glasses noncrystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.23(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 18
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Quartz Fused quartz (glass)

noncrystalline SiO2
crystalline SiO2 http://www.diytrade.com/china/pd/550893/Optical_fused_silica_glas
s.html

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 19
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Crystal structure
 Crystal structure refers to the way in which atoms, ions or molecules
are spatially arranged in crystalline materials. The crystal structure
determines some of the properties of crystalline solids
 Lattice: a three dimensional array of points coinciding with atom
positions.
 Crystal structure is defined in terms of unit cell.
Recall: crystalline materials are periodic, regular repeating in 3D
Unit cell
 Unit cell is the basic structural unit or building block of the
crystal structure.
 It is the smallest repetitive volume which contains the complete
lattice pattern of a crystal.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 20
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

The smallest repetitive volume – Unit Cell

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 21
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Metallic Crystal Structures

•ALL metals are crystalline materials but with different crystal
structures
• How can we stack metal atoms to minimize empty space?
2-dimensions

vs.

Now stack these 2-D layers to make 3-D structures

In-class practice:
What are the unit cells in the two different types of 2D layers?

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 22
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Metallic Crystal Structures

• Tend to be densely packed.
• Have the simplest crystal structures.

• The three relatively simple crystal structures, which are

found in most common metals, are:
face-centered cubic (FCC)
body-centered cubic (BCC)
hexagonal closed pack (HCP)

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 23
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Simple Cubic Structure (SC)

• Rare due to low packing density (only Polonium has this structure)
• Close-packed directions are cube edges.

Question: how many atoms are there

in the unit cell?

a
contains 8 x 1/8 =
R=0.5a
1 atom/unit cell

close-packed directions: The direction in which the atoms are in touch.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 24
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Coordination number
Coordination number is the number of atomic nearest-neighbors or
touching atoms.
• Consider a simple cubic unit cell

• Coordination # = 6
(# nearest neighbors)

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Atomic Packing Factor (APF)

Atomic packing factor is the fraction of the unit cell occupied by
atoms

Volume of atoms in unit cell*

APF =
Volume of unit cell

*assume hard spheres

Recall: Volume of a spherical atom = 4

3 πR 3
Where R is the radius of the atom

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 26
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Atomic Packing Factor (APF)

Volume of atoms in unit cell
APF =
Volume of unit cell

• APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52

volume
atoms atom
4
unit cell p (0.5a) 3
a 1
3
APF =
R=0.5a
a3 volume
unit cell
close-packed directions
contains 8 x 1/8 = Adapted from Fig. 3.24,
1 atom/unit cell Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 27
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)

The unit cell of BCC crystal structure has cubic geometry with atoms
located at all the 8 corners and a single atom at the center of the cube
• Atoms touch each other along cube diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical.
ex: Chromium (Cr) , W, Fe (), Tantalum (Ta), Molybdenum (Mo)

Adapted from Fig. 3.2,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 28
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)

• Coordination # = 8 Question: how many atoms are there
in the unit cell?
• Close-packed direction

Body diagonal of the cube

2 atoms/unit cell: 1 center + 8 corners x 1/8

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 29
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Atomic Packing Factor: BCC

• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68

3a

2a
Close-packed directions: body diagonal of the cube
Adapted from R length = 4R = 3 a
Fig. 3.2(a), Callister & a
Rethwisch 8e. atoms
4 volume
unit cell 2 p ( 3 a/4 ) 3
3 atom
APF =
volume
a3
unit cell

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 30
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)

The unit cell has a cubic geometry with atoms located at each of
corners and at the center of the faces.
• Atoms touch each other along face diagonals.
ex: Al, Cu, Au, Pb, Ni, Pt, Ag

Adapted from Fig. 3.1, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 31
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)

• Coordination # = 12 Question: how many atoms are there
in the unit cell?
• Close-packed direction

Face diagonal

4 atoms/unit cell: 6 face x 1/2 + 8 corners x 1/8

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 32
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Atomic Packing Factor: FCC

• APF for a face-centered cubic structure = 0.74
maximum achievable APF

Close-packed directions: face diagonal

length = 4R = 2a
2a

Unit cell contains:

6 x 1/2 + 8 x 1/8
a = 4 atoms/unit cell
Adapted from
Fig. 3.1(a),
Callister & Rethwisch atoms
4 volume
p ( 2 a/4 ) 3
8e.
unit cell 4
3 atom
APF =
volume
a3
unit cell
Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 33
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Crystalline materials
Periodicity

Long range order

Si Oxygen

Non-crystalline materials:
amorphous

noncrystalline SiO2

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 34
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Metallic crystal structures

All metals are crystalline materials
Unit cell

FCC: face-centered cubic BCC: body-centered cubic

Coordination number: Coordination number: 8
Number of atoms in unit cell: Number of atoms in unit cell: 2

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)

• Coordination # = 12 Question: how many atoms are there
in the unit cell?
• Close-packed direction

Face diagonal

4 atoms/unit cell: 6 face x 1/2 + 8 corners x 1/8

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 36
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Atomic Packing Factor (APF)

Volume of atoms in unit cell*

APF =
Volume of unit cell

*assume hard spheres

BCC: 0.68

3a

2a

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 37
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Atomic Packing Factor: FCC

• APF for a face-centered cubic structure = 0.74
maximum achievable APF

Close-packed directions: face diagonal

length = 4R = 2a
2a

Unit cell contains:

6 x 1/2 + 8 x 1/8
a = 4 atoms/unit cell
Adapted from
Fig. 3.1(a),
Callister & Rethwisch atoms
4 volume
p ( 2 a/4 ) 3
8e.
unit cell 4
3 atom
APF =
volume
a3
unit cell
Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 38
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

FCC Stacking Sequence

• ABCABC... Stacking Sequence
• 2D Projection

B B
C
A
A sites B B B
C C
B sites B B
C sites

A
B
• FCC Unit Cell C

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 39
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials
Hexagonal Close-Packed Structure
• ABAB... Stacking Sequence (HCP)
ex: Cadmium (Cd), Magnesium (Mg), Ti, Zn

Figure 3.15 on Page 71

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 40
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials
Hexagonal Close-Packed Structure
• 3D Projection (HCP)
• 2D Projection

A sites Top layer

c B sites Middle layer

A sites Bottom layer

a

Adapted from Fig. 3.3(a), page 49

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 41
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials
Hexagonal Close-Packed Structure
(HCP)
The unit cell of HCP crystal has hexagonal geometry
 The top and bottom faces consisting of six atoms that
form a regular hexagon and surrounds a single atom in
the center.
A plane containing three atoms is located between the
top and bottom faces

The total number of atoms per unit cell is

1/6 x 12 + ½ x 2 + 3 = 6 atoms / cell
Coordination number for HCP structure is 12
APF is the same as for FCC, i.e. APF = 0.74

Fig. 3.3(a), page 49

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 42
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Virtual Materials Science & Engineering (VMSE)

• VMSE is a tool to visualize materials science topics such as crystallography
and polymer structures in three dimensions

• Available http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 43
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

VMSE: Metallic Crystal Structures & Crystallography

Module
• VMSE allows you to view crystal structures, directions, planes,
etc. and manipulate them in three dimensions

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 44
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Unit Cells for Metals

• VMSE allows you to view the unit cells and manipulate
them in three dimensions

• Below are examples of actual VMSE screen shots

FCC Structure HCP Structure

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 45
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Theoretical Density, r
Density = r =
Mass of Atoms in Unit Cell
Total Volume of Unit Cell
nA
r =
VC NA

where n = number of atoms/unit cell

A = atomic weight
VC = Volume of unit cell = a3 for cubic
NA = Avogadro’s number
= 6.022 x 1023 atoms/mol

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 46
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Theoretical Density, r
• Copper (FCC) Example problem 3.3 Page 51
A = 63.55 g/mol
R = 0.128 nm
2a
nA
r =
VC NA

a n = 4 atoms/unit cell
a = 4R/ 2 = 0.362 nm
atoms
g
unit cell 4 63.55
mol rtheoretical = 8.90 g/cm3

r= r actual = 8.96 g/cm3

a3 6.022 x 1023
volume atoms

unit cell mol

47
Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Polymorphism and Allotropy

 Polymorphism refers to the ability of a solid material to exist in

more than one crystal structure.
 When present in elemental solids, it is referred to as allotropy.
 The prevailing crystal structure depends on the temperature and
pressure.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 48
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Phase transformation: Chapter 9

iron system
liquid
1538ºC
BCC -Fe
1394ºC
FCC -Fe
BCC
912ºC
BCC -Fe
FCC

BCC

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 49
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Allotropes of carbon
Diamond Graphite

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Diamond_and_graphite.jpg
Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Lattice parameter
The three edge length a, b, and c, and the three inter-axial
angles , , and , which defines the geometry of a unit cell
of crystal lattice are called lattice parameters.

a, b, and c are the lattice constants

Adapted from Figure 3.4, Page 52

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 51
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Crystal Systems
 There are seven possible groups of crystal system that can be
formed based on possible combination of lattice parameters to form
unique shape of unit cell.
 Each of the seven possible combination of lattice parameter forms a
crystal system.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 52
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

There is a difference between crystal system and crystal

structure.
Crystal system is determined by the shape of the unit cell.

Crystal structure is determined by the arrangement of atoms

within the unit cell.

A crystal system can have more than one crystal structures

e.g. cubic crystal system has FCC, BCC and even SC crystal
structures

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Seven crystal systems

Cubic: a=b= c α = β = γ = 90

Hexagonal: a=bc α = β = 90, γ = 120
Tetragonal: a=bc α = β = γ = 90 
Rhombohedral: a=b= c α = β = γ  90 
Orthorhombic: abc α = β = γ = 90 
Monoclinic: abc α = γ = 90   β
Triclinic: abc α  β  γ  90 

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 54
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Crystallographic Points

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Point Coordinates
The position of any point within a unit cell can be specified in terms
of its coordinates which are expressed as fractions of the unit cell edge
lengths.
The standard coordinate system places the origin at the lower left
back corner and
1. x-axis comes out of the paper
2. y-axis points to the right within the plane of the page
3. z-axis point upward within the plane of the page
A point can be expressed in terms of coordinates from the origin
along x, y and z axes with values of the coordinates being less than or
equal to 1.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Point Coordinates
1/2 1 0

Note
Commas or any other punctuation marks do not
separate the co-ordinates of a point and there is no
parenthesis
Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Point Coordinates

For the unit cell shown above locate the points having the following
coordinates:
a. 1 1 1
b. ¼ 1 ½

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Determine the coordinates of the following points:

Z Z

a
b c
y y

X X
a: 0 ½ ½
b: ½ 1 ½
c: ½ ½ ½
Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Crystallographic Directions

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Crystallographic directions
 Certain directions within a unit cell are very significant - a need to
specify various directions in a unit cell
 Directions in crystals are represented by three directional indices
(Miller Indices).

The following steps are used to determine the indices of a

crystallographic direction in a unit cell:
1. Determine the coordinates of two points that lie on that direction.
2. Subtract the coordinates of the “start” point from the “end” point to obtain the
projections of the vector on each of the three each axis in terms of unit cell
dimensions a, b, and c.
3. Clear fraction and/or reduce the results obtained from step 2 to the lowest integers
4. Enclose the numbers in square brackets [u v w ].
Represent the numbers with negative sign with a bar over the number. Note that the
numbers are not separated by commas

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Determine the indices for the direction shown in the figure below:

End point: ½ 1 0
Start point : 0 0 0
Projections on the axes: ½ 1 0
Multiply by 2 (reduction) [120]
The indices of the direction are [120]

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Crystallographic Directions

Miller Indices

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Determine the indices for the direction shown in the figure below:
Z Z
a
c

y y
d

X X
a: [-1 1 0] c: [-1 -1 1]
b: [-1 0 1] d: [-1 1 1]

Are these directions correlated?

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Determine the indices for the direction shown in the figure below

Z Z

y d c y
a


X  X
a : [2 11] c : [111]


b : [11 0] d : [111]
Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Drawing direction within a unit cell when

Miller indices are given.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Drawing direction within a unit cell when Miller indices is given

Example:
Draw a [120] direction within a cubic cell

Method:
1. reduce the coordinates to a maximum of 1
2. use the reduced coordinates to draw the direction

Direction: [120]
Divide by 2 to get a maximum coordinate of 1: ½10

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Draw the following direction within a cubic unit cell

[1 1 0]
The bar on the second index shows that the vector has a
component in –y direction

a b

Note:
Either a or b is correct, but b is preferred
because the line lies within the drawn unit cell

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Determine the indices for the directions shown in the following

cubic unit cell

C
B

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

C B

Direction B Direction C
Starting point: 0, 0, 0 Starting point: 1, ½, 1
Finishing point: ½, 1, ½ Finishing point: 1, 0, 0
Projection on axes: ½ , 1 ½ Projection on axes: 0, -½ -1
Multiply by two to clear Multiply by two to clear the
the fraction. Miller Indices for Fraction. Miller Indices for
direction is [121] direction C is
[0 1 2 ]

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Within a cubic unit cell, sketch the following direction

[3 1 2]
z

[[312]
3 1 2]
y
2/3

1/3
x

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Within a cubic unit cell, sketch the following directions

[101] [3 1 3] [1 1 1]

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Determine the Miller indices of the following directions in a cubic unit cell:

C B

Direction B Direction C
Starting point: 00 0 Starting point: 1 ½ 1
Finishing point: ½ 1 ½ Finishing point: 10 0
Projection on axes: ½ 1 ½ Projection on axes: 0 -½ -1
Multiply by two to clear Multiply by two to clear the
the fraction. Miller Indices for Fraction. Miller Indices for
direction is [121] direction C is [0 1 2 ]

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Identical Directions
Note:
 Any direction and its multiple are identical. E.g., [100] is
the same direction as [200]. The only difference is that the
second indices are not reduced to the lowest integers.
 It is necessary to always reduce Miller Indices to the lowest
integers.
 Directions are vectors. Therefore, a direction and its
negative are not identical. [100] is not equal to [ 1 00] . They
represent the same line, but opposite direction.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Equivalent Directions
• When the spacing of atoms along each direction in a set of directions is
the same, these directions are said to be equivalent.

Example: In a cubic system, [100], [001],[010],[100],[001],[010]

directions are equivalent directions.

They can be grouped into a family of directions closed in

angle brackets: <100>
Families of directions <uvw>

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

• Directions in cubic crystals having the same indices without regard to

the order or sign are equivalent. (This is not always true for other
crystal systems).

• Example: For a cubic system, [123] and [312] are equivalent

Exercise:
Write all the directions of the form 110

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Identical and Equivalent directions

[011] <110>:
[101], [011], [110]
[101] [101], [101], [101]
[011], [011], [011]
[110], [110], [110]

[110]

[220]

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Crystallographic Directions in HCP Crystal

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Miller Bravais indices

 The Miller Bravais indices for a
direction in hexagonal unit cells
can be obtained from a 3 index
notation based on a1, a2 and z axes
(with a3-axis rendered
redundant) using the same
procedure as described for cubic
systems.
 The three-axis can subsequently be
converted to four-axis notation.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Miller Bravais indices for direction

 To convert from 3-index notation [u’v’w’] to 4-index notation

[uvtw], use the equations below;

[u' v' w']  [uvtw]

n n
u  (2u  - v) v (2v - u )
3 3

w = nw'
t = - (u + v)

Where n is a factor that may be required to reduce u, v, t and w to the smallest

integers

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Example: Determine the Miller-Bravais indices for directions A and B in the figure below

n
u  (2u  - v)
3
n
v (2v - u )
3
t = - (u + v)

w = nw'

First Step
Determine the miller indices for
direction A using 3-index notation -
similar to the case of cubic crystals by ignoring a3 –

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Direction B
Starting point: 1, 0, 0
Finishing point: 0, 0, 1
Projections: -1, 0, 1

u
n
(2u  - v) 
n
(2 * 1  0) 
- 2n n=3
3 3 3
n n n
v (2v - u )  (2 * 0  1) 
3 3 3 Miller Indices for
n
t  - (u  v)  direction B is
3
[ 2 113]
w= n*1=n
Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Significance of Crystallographic directions

 Crystallographic directions are used to indicate a particular orientation
of a single crystal or of an oriented polycrystalline material.
 Metals deform more easily in directions along which atoms are in
closest contact.
 Magnetic properties of iron and other magnetic materials depend on
crystallographic directions.
 It is much easier to magnetize iron in the [100] directions compared to
[111] or [110] directions.
 In magnetic materials used for recording media, grains must be aligned
in a particular crystallographic direction so that stored information will
are not easily erased.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Linear Density
Number of atoms
• Linear Density of Atoms  LD = Unit length of direction vector

[110]
ex: linear density of Al in [110]
direction
a = 0.405 nm

# atoms
a
2
LD = = 3.5 nm - 1
Adapted from
Fig. 3.1(a), length 2a
Callister & Rethwisch
8e.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 84
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Crystallographic Planes

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Like directions, crystallographic planes are also

significant and they are represented by Miller
indices

 Miller Indices: Reciprocals of the (three) axial intercepts for a

plane, cleared of fractions & common multiples.

 All parallel planes have same Miller indices.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Procedure for determining the miller indices of crystallographic planes

 Identify the points at which the plane intercepts the x, y, and z axes
in terms of lattice parameters a, b, c.
 If the plane passes through the origin, the origin of the axes must
be moved.
 Find the reciprocal of the identified intercepts on x, y and z axes
 Clear fraction, but do not reduce to the lowest integers
 Enclose in parentheses, no commas, i.e., (hkl)

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials
Example
Determine the miller indices of plane shown below
A

Plane A
The intercepts: x =1, y =1 and z = ∞
Reciprocal: 1/x = 1, 1/y = 1 and 1/z = 1/∞ = 0
No fraction to clear
Miller indices of the plane A is (110)

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials
Example
Determine the miller indices of plane shown below

Plane B
The intercepts x =1, y =1 and z = 1
Reciprocal 1/x = 1, 1/y = 1 and 1/z = 1
No fraction to clear
Miller indices of the plane B is (111)

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials
Determine the miller indices of the plane C shown below

 Since the plane passes through the origin,

shift the origin to another point

 Intercept x = ∞, y = -1, and z = ½

 Reciprocal 0, -1 2
 No fraction to clear
 Miller Indices of plane C is
(0 1 2)

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

In-class exercise:
Determine the miller indices of the plane D shown below

B
1/2

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials
Example
Determine the miller indices of plane shown below

Plane B
The intercepts x =1, y =1 and z = 1
Reciprocal 1/x = 1, 1/y = 1 and 1/z = 1
No fraction to clear
Miller indices of the plane B is (111)

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials
Determine the miller indices of the plane C shown below

 Since the plane passes through the origin,

shift the origin to another point

 Intercept x = ∞, y = -1, and z = ½

 Reciprocal 0, -1 2
 No fraction to clear
 Miller Indices of plane C is
(0 1 2)

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

In-class exercise:
Determine the miller indices of the plane D shown below

B
1/2

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Drawing a plane within a unit cell when

Miller indices are given.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Example: Draw plane ( 210) in a cubic unit cell

•To construct a plane, simply work backward
•Take the reciprocal to find the intercepts

Intercepts = -½, 1, ∞

 Since the x-intercept is in the

negative direction, we can draw the
plane within the unit cell by moving
the origin by +1 in the x-direction.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Hexagonal Closed Packed (HCP)

Crystal

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Miller-Bravais Indices for hexagonal unit cells

 The indices describing planes and directions in hexagonal unit cells are called
Miller-Bravais indices. The coordinate system uses four axes (a1, a2, a3 and z)
instead of three
 The method for finding the indices for planes in hexagonal unit cells is the
same as discussed for the cubic systems.
 However 4 intercepts are required, which gives the Miller Bravais Indices of the
plane as (hkil)
 Note that the first 3 integers in Miller Bravais Indices (hkil) are related by
i=-(h+k)

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Example:
Determine the Miller Bravais Indices for Planes A, B, and C

Plane A
• Intercept: a1 = ∞, a2 = 1, a3 = -1, z = ∞
• Reciprocal: 0, 1, -1, 0
• No fraction to clear
• Miller Bravais indices for plane A is
(01 1 0)

Plane B Plane C
• Intercept: a1 = ∞, a2 = ∞, a3 = ∞, z = 1 • Intercept: a1 = 1, a2 = -1/2, a3 = 1, z = ∞
• Reciprocal: 0, 0, 0, 1 • Reciprocal: 1, -2, 1, 0
• No fraction to clear • No fraction to clear
• Miller-Bravais indices for plane B is • Miller-Bravais indices for plane B is
(0001) (1210)

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Determine the Miller Bravais Indices for Plane D

Plane D
• Intercept: a1 = 1, a2 = 1, a3 = - ½ and z = 1
• Reciprocal: 1, 1, -2, 1
• No fraction to clear
• Miller-Bravais indices for plane A is (1121)

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Identical Planes
 Planes and their negatives are identical. This is not the case for directions
 Planes and their multiples are not identical (Planar densities for these planes
may not be the same)
 Directions and their multiples are identical
(001)
[011]
(002) [101]

[110]

[220]

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Equivalent planes
 Planes having the same atomic packing are equivalent planes.
 Such families of planes are designated by indices that are
enclosed in braces such as {100} and {111}.
Ex: {100} = (100), (010), (001), (100), (010), (001)
In cubic system only, planes having the same indices,
irrespective of order or sign are equivalent.
Recall: equivalent directions:
<110>:
[101], [011], [110]
[101], [101], [101]
[011], [011], [011]
[110], [110], [110]

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Note
 For cubic and hexagonal crystals, planes and direction having
the same indices are perpendicular to one another

 Certain planes are crucial in a crystal. For example metals

deform along planes of atoms that are most tightly packed
together.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

b
b

c
c
a
a

Plane A: (01 1 0) Direction a: [01 1 0]

Plane B: (0001) Direction b: [0001]

Plane C: (1 2 10) Direction c: [1210]

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Planar density
Planar density is the number of atoms per unit area that are centered on a
particular crystallographic plane
number of atoms centered on a plane
PD 
area of the plane
Illustration
Calculate the planar density on plane (110) for FCC crystal structure

Recall: for FCC a = 2R√2

2 atoms 2 atoms 1
PD(110)   
a * 4R 8R 2 2 4R 2 2

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Packing Fraction of a plane

 Ratio of the fraction of the area of that plane that is actually

covered by atoms

area of the plane covered by atoms

Packing Fraction 
Total area of the plane

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Interplanar spacing
 The distance between two adjacent parallel planes of atoms is called
interplanar spacing.
 The interplanar spacing in cubic crystals is given by the general
equation
a0
d hkl 
h 2  k 2  l2

where ao is the lattice parameter and h, k, and l represents the Miller

indices of the adjacent planes being considered

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Parallel Crystallographic Planes

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Example: Inter-planar spacing between (110) planes in FCC lattice structures

2
d110  a0 y
2

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Single Crystal vs. Polycrystals

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Single Crystal
Single crystal refers to a crystalline solid for which the periodic and repeated atomic
pattern extends throughout its entirety without interruption

Polycrystalline materials
 Polycrystalline materials are crystalline materials, which consist of more
than one crystal or grain. Most crystalline solids are polycrystalline in
nature.
 The area where two grains meet is called the grain boundary. Atomic
mismatch exists at the grain boundary regions.

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Various stages during solidification of metals

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Anisotropy and Isotropy

 The directionality of properties is called anisotropy.
 Anisotropic materials have different properties in different
crystallographic directions
 Isotropic materials are those, which have the same properties in all
crystallographic directions
 The properties of single crystal metals often vary with
crystallographic directions i.e. they are said to be anisotropic.

In class discussion: Is single crystalline material anisotropic

or isotropic?

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

• Polycrystals
-Properties may/may not vary with direction.
-If grains are randomly oriented: isotropic ( property not dependent on
direction). Most polycrystalline behaves isotropically

-If grains are oriented along certain direction (textured), then

polycrystalline material could be anisotropic.

Random grain distribution Oriented grains due to rolling operation

Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed.
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

X-Ray Diffraction

 There is an instrument called X-ray diffractometer, which is used to

determine crystal structure and the dimensions of unit cell.

11
Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 5
MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

X-Rays to Determine Crystal Structure

• Incoming X-rays diffract from crystal planes.

reflections must
be in phase for
a detectable signal
extra
distance
l Adapted from Fig. 3.20,
travelled q q Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
by wave “2” spacing
d between
planes
Bragg’s law
X-ray
Measurement of critical intensity nl
d=
angle, qc, allows (from 2 sin qc
computation of planar detector)
spacing, d. q
qc
11
Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 6
 MECH2272 Introduction to Engineering Materials

z
X-Ray Diffraction
z
Pattern
z
c c c

y (110) y y
a b a b a b
Intensity (relative)

x x x (211)

(200)

Adapted from Fig. 3.22, Callister 8e. Diffraction angle 2q

11
Ref: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, 8th Ed. 7