Unit 13: Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Engines

Unit code D/615/1487

Unit level 4
Credit value 15

Learning Outcome 4
Tutorial No. 2 – Spark Ignition Engines

Determine the performance of internal combustion engines

 Application of the second law of thermodynamics to heat engines

 Comparison of theoretical and practical heat engine cycles, including Otto, Diesel and
Carnot

 Explanations of practical applications of heat engine cycles, such as compression

ignition (CI) and spark ignition engines, including their relative mechanical and
thermodynamic efficiencies

 Describe possible efficiency improvements to heat engines

CONTENTS

1. Spark Ignition Engines

2. Air Standard Cycles

3. The Otto Cycle

4. Efficiency

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D. J. Dunn

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1. SPARK IGNITION ENGINES

Spark ignition engines use fuels that are easily detonated such as petrol and natural gas. The detonation is
initiated by a spark produced by the spark plug. They are very versatile and used to power a wide range of
machines from garden tools (strimmers, mowers etc.) through to vehicle engines.

Basic engines used for many applications have

a simple way to mix the fuel and to air provide
the spark. These are not made to be very
efficient and respond to changes in speed and
load. A simple system is illustrated.

Complex engines such as used on modern cars have sophisticated ways to mix the fuel and air and to
provide the spark. They use a range of sensors, electronically controlled systems and digital computers to
adjust the fuel and spark timing in response to the changes in load and speed. A schematic illustration of
such a system is shown below.

The engine performance depends on a number of factors like:

 The way the fuel is delivered and mixed with air.

 The type of fuel.
 The way the air is supplied.
 The way the spent gases are exhausted.

We would need to examine carburettors, injection systems, turbochargers and octane value as well as many
other things beyond the scope of this tutorial.

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D. J. Dunn

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All spark ignition engines have 4 processes described below with the pressure-volume cycle that results.

A - COMPRESSION STROKE - Air and fuel

are mixed and compressed so rapidly that there
is no time for heat to be lost. In other words the
compression is adiabatic. Work must be done to
compress the gas.

B - IGNITION - Just before the point of

maximum compression, the air is hot and a
spark ignites the mixture causing an explosion.
This produces a rapid rise in the pressure and
temperature. The process is idealised as a
constant volume process in the Otto cycle.

C - EXPANSION OR WORKING STROKE -

The explosion is followed by an adiabatic
expansion pushing the piston and giving out
work.

D – EXHAUST - At the end of the working

stroke, there is still some pressure in the
cylinder. This is released suddenly by the
opening of an exhaust valve. This is idealised by
a constant volume drop in pressure in the Otto
cycle. In 4 stroke engines a second cycle is
performed to push out the products of
combustion and draw in fresh air and fuel. It is
only the power cycle that we are concerned
with.

The 4 stroke engine conducts a second cycle to push out the exhaust gas and
suck in a fresh volume of air.

There are 4 stroke and 2 stroke engines. You can see and hear a good
explanation at these links.
4 stroke animation
2 stroke animation

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D. J. Dunn

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2. AIR STANDARD CYCLES

Ideal engine cycles are theoretical thermodynamic cycles conducted on air that represents as near as
possible the actual cycle that occurs in real engines. These are known as Air Standard Cycles. In this tutorial
we will study the Air Standard Cycle for a spark ignition engine devised by Count N A Otto (born 1832).
This cycle is often called the constant volume cycle.

3 THE OTTO CYCLE

The Otto cycle represents the ideal cycle for a spark ignition engine. The four ideal processes that make up
the Otto cycle are as follows.

1 to 2. The air is compressed reversibly and

adiabatically. Work is put in and no heat
transfer occurs.

2 to 3. The air is heated at constant volume. No

work is done. Qin = m cv (T3 - T2)

3 to 4. The air expands reversibly and

adiabatically with no heat transfer back to
its original volume. Work output is
obtained.

4 to 1. The air is cooled at constant volume back

to its original pressure and temperature. No
work is done
Qout = m cv (T4 - T1)

If the engine is successful, then Wout (the area under the top curve) is
larger than Win (the area under the lower curve). The enclosed area
represents the net work obtained from the cycle. This is true for all
cycles and for real engines.

The net heat transfer is Qin = Qout

The net work transfer is Win = Wout
Applying the first law, it follows Qnet = Wnet

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D. J. Dunn

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4 EFFICIENCY

For tye process (1) to (2) we may use the rule:

This is derived from combing the gas law pV=C with the adiabatic expansion law pV γ = C

For the process (3) to (4) we may similarly write:

rv is the volume compression ratio

It follows that:

Hence:

Since this theoretical cycle is carried out on air for which  = 1.4 then the efficiency of an Otto Cycle is
given by:

This shows that the thermal efficiency depends only on the compression ratio. If the compression ratio is
increased, the efficiency is improved. This in turn increases the temperature ratios between the two adiabatic
processes and explains why the efficiency is improved.

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D. J. Dunn

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 1

An Otto cycle is conducted as follows. Air at 100 kPa and 20 oC is compressed reversibly and
adiabatically. The air is then heated at constant volume to 1500 oC. The air then expands reversibly and
adiabatically back to the original volume and is cooled at constant volume back to the original pressure
and temperature. The volume compression ratio is 8. Calculate the following.

i. The thermal efficiency.

ii. The heat input per kg of air.

iii. The net work output per kg of air.

iv. The maximum cycle pressure.

cv = 718 kJ/kg = 1.4. R = 287 J/kg K

SOLUTION

Remember to use absolute temperatures throughout. Solve for a mass of 1 kg.

T1 = 20 +273 = 293K T3=1500 + 273 =1773K rv=8

γ

From the gas law we have:

If you have followed the principles used here you should be able to solve any cycle.

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D. J. Dunn

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 1

Take cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K, R = 287 J/kg K and = 1.4 throughout.

1. In an Otto cycle air is drawn in at 20oC. The maximum cycle temperature is 1500 oC. The volume
compression ratio is 8/1. Calculate the following.

i. The thermal efficiency. (56.5%)

ii. The heat input per kg of air. (789 kJ/kg).
iii. The net work output per kg of air. (446 kJ/kg).

2. An Otto cycle has a volume compression ratio of 9/1. The heat input is 500kJ/kg. At the start of
compression the pressure and temperature are 100 kPa and 40oC respectively. Calculate the following.

i. The thermal efficiency. (58.5%)

ii. The maximum cycle temperature. (1450 K).
iii. The maximum pressure. (4.17 MPa).
iv. The net work output per kg of air. (293 kJ/kg).

3. Calculate the volume compression ratio required of an Otto cycle which will produce an efficiency of
60%. (9.88/1)

The pressure and temperature before compression are 105 kPa and 25 oC respectively. The net work
output is 500 kJ/kg). Calculate the following.

i. The heat input. (833 kJ/kg).

ii. The maximum temperature. (1 906 K)
iii. The maximum pressure. (6.64 MPa).

4. An Otto cycle uses a volume compression ratio of 9.5/1. The pressure and temperature before
compression are 100 kPa and 40oC respectively. The mass of air used is 11.5 grams/cycle. The heat
input is 600 kJ/kg. The cycle is performed 3 000 times per minute. Determine the following.

i. The thermal efficiency. (59.4%).

ii. The net work output. (4.1 kJ/cycle)
iii. The net power output. (205 kW).

5. An Otto cycle with a volume compression ratio of 9 is required to produce a net work output of 450
kJ/cycle. Calculate the mass of air to be used if the maximum and minimum temperatures in the cycle
are 1300oC and 20oC respectively. (Answer 1.235 kg).

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D. J. Dunn

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6. The air standard cycle appropriate to the reciprocating spark ignition engine internal-combustion engine
is the Otto. Using this, find the efficiency and output of a 2 litre (dm 3), 4 stroke engine with a
compression ratio of 9 running at 3000 rev/min. The fuel is supplied with a gross calorific value of 46.8
MJ/kg and an air fuel ratio of 12.8.

Calculate the answers for two cases.

a. The engine running at full throttle with the air entering the cylinder at atmospheric conditions of 1.01
bar and 10oC with an efficiency ratio of 0.49.
(Answers 58.5% and 65 kW)

b. The engine running at part throttle with the air entering the cylinder at 0.48 bar and efficiency ratio
0.38.
(Answers 58.5% and 24 kW).

7. The working of a petrol engine can be approximated to an Otto cycle with a compression ratio of 8
using air at 1 bar and 288 K with heat addition of 2 MJ/kg. Calculate the heat rejected and the work
done per kg of air.
(Answers 871 kJ/kg and 1129 kJ/kg).

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D. J. Dunn

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