Polynomial long division

& cubic equations

Polynomial One polynomial may be divided by another of lower degree by long division (similar
long division to arithmetic long division).

Example ( x3 + 3x 2 + x + 9)
(x + 2)

Write the question in long division x + 2 x 3 + 3x 2 + x + 9

form.

Begin with the x3 term.

x3 divided by x equals x2. x2
Place x2 above the division bracket
as shown. x + 2 x3 + 3x 2 + x + 9
subtract x3 + 2 x 2
Multiply x + 2 by x 2 .
x 2 ( x + 2 ) = x3 + 2 x 2 . x2

Place x3 + 2 x 2 below x3 + 3 x 2 then

subtract.
x3 + 3 x 2 − ( x 2 + 2 x ) = x 2 x2
x + 2 x3 + 3x2 + x + 9

“Bring down” the next term (x) as x3 + 2 x2 ↓

indicated by the arrow. x2 + x

Repeat this process with the result x2 + x −1

until there are no terms remaining.
x + 2 x3 + 3 x 2 + x + 9
x2 divided by x equals x. x3 + 2 x 2 ↓ ↓
x ( x + 2) = x2 + 2 x .
x2 + x ↓
(x 2
+ x) − ( x + 2x) = −x
2
x2 + 2 x ↓
Bring down the 9. −x + 9
− x divided by x equals − 1. −x−2
−1 ( x + 2 ) = − x − 2 . +11

( − x + 9 ) − ( − x − 2 ) = 11
The remainder is 11
( x 3 + 3x 2 + x + 9) divided by ( x + 2) equals ( x 2 − x + 1) , remainder 11.

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 If the polynomial has an “xn” term missing, add the term with a coefficient of
zero.

Example ( 2x 3
− 3 x + 1) ÷ ( x − 1)

(
Rewrite 2 x 3 − 3 x + 1 as ) 2 x3 + 0 x 2 − 3x + 1

Use the method from the

previous example to do the
duvision.

2x ÷ x = 2x
3 2
2x 2 + 2 x − 1
2x
2
( x − 1) = 2 x 3
− 2x
2

x − 1 2 x3 + 0 x 2 − 3x + 1
2x − 0x − 2x − 2x
3 2
( 3 2
) = 2x 2

2 x 3 − 2x 2 ↓ ↓
2x ÷ x = 2x
2 2 x 2 − 3x ↓
2 x ( x − 1) = 2 x − 2 x 2x 2 − 2x ↓
2

(
2 x2 − 3x − 2 x 2 − 2 x = − x ) −x +1
− x +1
− x ÷ x = −1 0
−1 ( x − 1) = − x + 1
− x + 1 − ( x + 1) = 0
Remainder is 0

( 2x 3
− 3 x + 1) ÷ ( x − 1) = 2 x 2 + 2 x − 1 , exactly. (Remainder = 0)

Exercise 1 Divide the first polynomial by the second.

(a) 2 x 3 − 6 x 2 + 5 x + 2 , x − 2 (b) 3 x3 + 13 x 2 + 6 x − 12 , 3 x + 4

(c) 3 x 3 + x − 1 , x + 1 (d) x3 + 2 x − 3 , x − 1

(e) 2 x 4 + 5 x 3 + x + 3 , 2 x + 1 (f) 2 x 3 + x 2 + 5 x + 12 , 2 x + 3

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Factor If P(x) is a polynomial in x and
theorem
P(a) = 0 then (x − a) is a factor of P(x)

Solving cubic We can use the factor theorem to find one factor of a cubic function, and then
equations use polynomial long division to find the remaining factor(s).
(Sometimes it is possible to find all solutions by finding three values of x for
which P(x) = 0 ).
A cubic equation has a maximum of three distinct solutions.

Example Solve the equation x 3 − 5x 2 − 2 x + 24 = 0

Look for a value of x that makes P(x) = 0.

Try x = 1 first, then work up through the factors of 24.

Try x = 1 P(1) =18

x − 1 is not a factor

Try x = 2 P(2) = 8
x − 2 is not a factor

Try x = − 2
P(−2)=0 therefore P(−2) = 0
x + 2 is a factor

Next divide x 3 − 5x 2 − 2 x + 24 by (x+ 2), using the method of polynomial

long division shown above. The remainder should be zero.

x 2 − 7 x + 12
x + 2 x3 − 5 x 2 − 2 x + 24
x3 + 2 x 2
−7 x 2 − 2 x
− 7 x 2 − 14 x
12 x + 24
12 x + 24
0

The factors of x 3 − 5x 2 − 2 x + 24 are (x + 2) and (x2 − 7x + 12)

The factors of (x2 − 7x + 12) are (x − 3) and (x − 4).
Therefore
x 3 − 5x 2 − 2 x + 24 has factors (x+ 2), (x − 3) and (x − 4) and

x 3 − 5x 2 − 2 x + 24 = 0 has solutions x = − 2, x = 3 and x = 4.

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Exercise 2 Solve the following equations.
(a) x 3 + 7 x 2 + 11x + 5 = 0 (b) 4 x 3 + 2 x 2 − 2 x = 0

(c) − x 3 − 3x 2 + x + 3 = 0 (d) x 3 − 7 x − 6 = 0

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Answers
(a) (b) (c)
Exercise 1 2 x 2 − 2 x + 1, remainder 4 x 2 + 3 x − 2, remainder − 4 3 x 2 − 3 x + 4, remainder − 5

(d) (e) (f)

x 2 + x + 3, remainder 0 x3 + 2 x 2 − x + 1, remainder 2 x 2 − x + 4, remainder 0

Exercise 2 (a) x = −1, x = −5 (b) x = 0, x = −1, x = 1 (c) x = 1, x = −1, x = −3

2

(d) x = −1, x = −2, x = 3

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