BIODETERIORATION

MCB 309
(1-1-0) (2 UNITS)
OUTLINE
• Principles of Microbial Deterioration of Materials;
• Material Subject To Microbial Deterioration: Food, Jet Fuels, Paper,
Paints, Textiles and Leather, Metals etc.;
• Factors Favoring Deterioration of Materials;
• Major Microbial Groups Involved In Deterioration;
• Impact of Processing and New Technologies on Biodeterioration;
• Biodeterioration Control.
PRINCIPLES OF BIODETERIORATION
• Microrganisms have a simple approach to life; they use whatever is
available as a food source, attach themselves to practically all surfaces,
multiply and build up biomass. Everyone is familiar with the phenomenon
of rotting, the natural decay and recycling of materials by a wide range of
life forms, including microorganisms. This process is termed
biodegradation and it is perceived as a beneficial or positive process.
• Biodeterioration may be defined as 'the deterioration of materials of
economic importance by microorganisms'; it is perceived as a deleterious
or negative process.
• Biodeterioration highlights the process of chemical and physical
alterations of products of economic value mostly in an
undesirable/unpleasant manner by the action of microorganisms or their
enzymes.
TYPES
In recent times, many materials are complex and much changed from
the original raw materials from which they were derived. New
environments are being explored or exploited and technology
advanced. These new materials and their uses presents biological and
environmental problems due to the enormous range of organisms in
the environment that deteriorate them. However, it becomes useful to
classify the different types of biodeterioration which can occur:
• Physical and mechanical biodeterioration
• Soiling or Fouling (aesthetic) Biodeterioration
• Biochemical Assimilatory Biodeterioration
• Biochemical Dissimilatory Biodeterioration
Physical and mechanical biodeterioration
• This occurs when the material is damaged as a direct result of the
physical activity of an organism, such as its movement or growth. In this
case, the organism quite simply disrupts the material by growth or
movement and does not use it as a source of food. There are few if any
serious examples of such damages caused by microorganisms; but an
example is the expansion of microbial mass between rock layers leading
to spalling of the rock surface. Other examples caused by organisms
include cracking of underground pipes by roots; gnawing on electrical
cables, cinderblocks, plasterboards and wood by rodents; and bird
strikes on aircraft. This latter point shows that biodeterioration is not
necessarily caused by any conscious process by the organisms.
Soiling or Fouling (aesthetic) Biodeterioration
• This type of biodeterioration is characterized by either the presence of dead insects or
droppings, excreta or metabolic products on food stuffs or materials which renders it
unsaleable. This visible form of biodeterioration occurs when the mere presence of an
organism or its excrements renders the product unacceptable. The function of the material
may be impaired by the presence of the organisms.
• Microorganisms especially fungi and algae can be found growing on the surface of materials,
utilizing surface dirt, reducing its economic value or acceptability. A classic example is dark
fungal colonies growing on damp soap and skin residues on plastic shower curtains. Many
fungi also release metabolites, soluble or insoluble pigments which discolour the surface of
materials.
• Fouling can be more serious and transcend the category of purely aesthetic damage in that a
physical function can be impaired e.g. the extra drags on ship caused by accumulation of
weeds and invertebrates on the hull can increase fuel consumption dramatically.
Biochemical Assimilatory Biodeterioration
• This is perhaps the most common form of biodeterioration. It occurs
when a material is degraded for its nutritional value. The organism
utilizes the material as food or energy source. Examples are: microbial
enzymes breaking down cellulose; the breakdown of cellulosic
materials such as wallpaper by cellulolytic fungi; rats and insects
eating stored grain and food.
Biochemical Dissimilatory Biodeterioration
• In this case, a material suffers chemical damage but not as a result of
direct intake of nutrients by the organism. This occurs when a
material is damaged as a result of the production and release of
metabolic products that may corrode, pigment or toxify the material.
Many organisms excrete waste products including pigmented or acidic
compounds which can disfigure or damage materials.
• The poisoning of grain by mycotoxins, and the release of pigments
into plastic films are examples of this process.
It is essential to appreciate that more than one of these processes, or
indeed all of them may be occurring at the same time.
BIOFILM
Biofilms are an extremely important and integral part of biodeterioration. The
removal of those biofilms which may be unsightly or considered to be a hazard to
health can be a costly and time-consuming business. When the colonization of the
surface of any material occurs, the term biofilm is invariably used. At one time, this
term was confined to surfaces in constant contact with water, i.e. at the solid / liquid
interface. The definition has now been extended to any interface, i.e. air / solid,
liquid / liquid and air / liquid, where growth of microorganisms occurs.
To a microbiologist, a biofilm represents a zone where the deleterious effects
brought about by the presence of microorganisms, and their extracellular
metabolites are concentrated or focused.
Slime production, the result of polymeric materials produced by a wide variety of
microorganisms – bacteria, fungi and algae – is associated with biofilms. For many
years, workers in industry have recognized the problems caused by slimes that
develop in process machinery, in storage tanks and cooling towers, and on many
surfaces in contact with liquids.
BIOFILM

Figure 1: Bacterial slime from within a pipeline

Table 1: Some problems associated with the presence of biofilms on materials
Materials Subject To Microbial Deterioration
Materials of economic importance known to be subject to biodeterioration include:
• Stored agricultural products
• Wood and allied constructional materials
• Pulp paper
• Textiles and leather
• Fuels and lubricants
• Pharmaceuticals and cosmetics
• Metals
• Paints
• Polymers, rubbers and plastic
• Stone, concrete and buildings
• Glass
• Adhesives and sealants
STORED FOOD MATERIAL
• The stored (unprocessed) plant material (fruits, seeds, etc.) are usually decayed due to
post harvest attack of bacteria and fungi. This kind of spoilage is called biodeterioration,
unlike loss of plant materials before harvest which is covered in plant pathology.
• The microbes can damage the plant materials partially as well as completely, that
definitely lowers the grade or the quality of the products. A large number of bacteria
such as Erwinia sp., Corynebacterium sp. and fungi such as Phytophthora sp.,
Streptomyces sp., Curvularia sp., Aspergillus sp. etc. are commonly found to be
associated with food materials.
• The storage fungi are usually developed from dormant spores / mycelium that cause post
harvest spoilage resulting into deterioration of food, fruits, seeds, etc. during storage.
• Nowadays, deterioration is mostly checked by altering storage conditions by chilling,
using inert gases and by treatment with low dosages of gamma-radiation. The most
affected products are soft fruits and salad vegetables; whereas grains, oilseeds and
legumes are durable products and root vegetables and apples are of semi-perishable
nature.
Table 2: Examples of fresh produce spoilage caused by microorganisms
Table 3: Some major food poisoning bacteria
LEATHER
• Leather is a product of animal hides. It is usually attacked by microorganisms since leather
contains keratins, animal fats and proteins. Therefore, it is rapidly deteriorated by lipolytic
and proteolytic microorganisms which secrete lipases and proteases.
• Leather production from animal hides involves soaking process which is carried out in
water where several bacilli (B. sublitis, B. megaterium. and B. punilis) attack it. They
secrete several extracellular enzymes that may remain active long after the death of their
producer organism.
• During leather deterioration, microbial damage may cause loss of tensile strength and
colouration. Since finished leather is quite acidic, hence fungi such as Rhizopus, Mucor,
Cunninghamella and Aspergillus deteriorate quite fairly, whereas bacteria are secondary
colonizers.
• Wool, fur, and feathers mainly contain cystein rich proteins (keratin) that is degraded by
keratinophilic fungi such as Trichophyton sp., Chryosporium sp. and Streptomyces sp. They
damage, colour, impart odour and affect the tensile strength. Biodeterioration of these
items nowadays is checked by incorporating biocide (bromopol i.e. 2-bromo-
nitropropane-1, 3-diol) during processing of the above items for clothing.
STONE AND BUILDING MATERIALS
• Old ancient monuments, natural rocks, etc. are all attacked by various microorganisms such as
large number of cyanobacteria, especially Pleurococcus, Oscillatoria, etc., lichens, fungi, including
Botrytis, Penicillium, and Trichoderma sp.
• They use concrete, brick and mortar of building material as nutrients. Various biocides in washes,
bleaching compounds, phenolics and organotin compounds are being used to save the building
materials.
• Actually, microbes colonize the site which may cause excessive expansion and contraction
associated with wetting and drying of colonies. Entrapment of water within the colonies and crack
can lead to enhanced damage. In addition, hyphal penetration into the surface layers of these
materials can result in crack formation which may be promoted by excretion of corrosive
metabolites.
• Several organic acids solubilize calcium carbonate while oxalic and citric acids solubilize silicates.
Desulfovibrio desulfuricans reduces sulphur compounds and produces H2S which is then oxidized
to sulphuric acid by Thiobacillus thiooxidans.
• Various nitrifying bacteria, Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas, also solubilise calcium associated with
building material. They oxidize ammonia to nitrite leading to the formation of soluble form of
calcium i.e. calcium nitrite. Besides, a large number of pseudomonads corrode steel and iron
structures used in building construction.
Table 4: Microbial activities which affect the durability of stone
PAPER AND OTHER CELLULOSIC MATERIALS
• Plant cells are composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and pectic substances.
Therefore, the plant cell biomass derives paper and card. Besides, it is used to thicken
cosmetics, paints, etc.
• Although, a large number of factors are responsible for the microbial spoilage of paper,
etc., deterioration of paper occurs by various cellulolytic fungi such as Trichoderma
chaetomium and Aspergillus, and bacteria such as Cellulomonas and Cellovibrio etc.
• These microorganisms secrete cellulases (endo- β-glucanases, exo-β-glucanases, and
β-glucosidase) which convert cellulose into glucose. Besides, some microorganisms
also secrete enzyme xylanases that deteriorate hemicellulose present in paper.
However, many other microbial activities have major effect on material strength.
• The rotting of wood is probably the most well known example of decay caused by
fungi. For practical purposes, the type of rot derives its name from the appearance and
integrity of the attacked wood. Chemically, wood is made up mainly of cellulose and
lignin. When both of these components are consumed by a fungus, the wood becomes
lighter in colour and the term 'white rot' is used. Some fungi consume more cellulose
than lignin and the wood becomes brown in colour, hence the term 'brown rot' (Fig. 2).
Other types of decay include wet rot, soft rot and staining.
• Brown, white and wet rots are caused by fungi that produce large,
noticeable fruiting bodies (macrofungi), whilst soft rot and staining
are mainly caused by microfungi. All wood needs to be wet before it
can rot, yet decayed wood sometimes looks dry (especially within
buildings) when it is infected with dry rot. The fungi responsible for
this condition, such as Serpula lachrymans, are able to import water
from other regions of the infected timber, via special filaments.

Figure 2: A piece of timber with brown rot

FUELS, LUBRICANTS AND COOLANTS
• For any microorganism to grow actively in a hydrocarbon, it must have water and a supply of nutrients. Fuels
and lubricants are the products of petroleum, they are attacked only if water is present. Lubricants
deteriorate more quickly as they consist of an emulsion of soil finely dispersed in water, in the presence of
emulsifying agent.
• These hydrocarbons are shorter carbon chain length (petrol, gasoline) and are less susceptible to
biodeterioration in comparison to those having long chain length such as diesel oil and kerosene. Further,
they also contain phenolic substances.
• Microorganisms are able to grow over a range of pH, temperarure and oxygen values. They can utilize a wide
range of organic and inorganic nutrients, and they also produce extracellular emulsifying agents which
enable them to come into close contact with the hydrocarbon droplets. It is not surprising that they grow
actively in formulations containing hydrocarbons. The problems caused by microorganisms include bioslimes,
a loss of useful additives and the formation of metabolic products, which indirectly contribute to corrosion
problems.
• A large number of fungal species e.g. Aspergillus, Hormoconis (formerly Cladosporium resinae) are often
found to be associated with oil sludge. These soil fungi degrade linear and branched alkanes to aromatic
rings. Biodeterioration of these hydrocarbon-containing materials may be controlled by adding biocides
(organoboron, isothiazolones etc.).
• Fuels: In the presence of water and other nutrients present in fuel systems, diesel fuel and aviation kerosene
will support the growth of a range of bacteria and fungi. Hormoconis resinae or the ‘kerosene fungus’
flourishes in aviation fuel which is screened regularly for the presence of this, and other unwelcome
microbial passengers.
• Metal-working Fluids: Metal-working fluids, or cutting fluids, are used in industry to
facilitate machining processes. They are needed to prolong tool life, improve surface
finish, remove swarf, reduce frictional heat between the tool and the chip, and to
reduce power consumption. Any reduction in the efficiency of these functions
constitutes a problem. Metal working fluids are classified according to their chemical
composition and fall into four major groups: neat oils, oil-in-water emulsions, 'semi-
synthetic' oil-in-water emulsions and chemical solutions.
• Oil-in-water emulsions are the most widely used industrial cutting fluids. Neat oils are
not usually considered to be susceptible to biodeterioration, since free water is seldom
present. The growth of micro-organisms (mainly bacteria) in oil-in-water emulsions,
can result in emulsion instability, lowering of pH, production of foul odours, the
formation of stable emulsions, and increased corrosive activity. Microbial growth
(mainly of fungi) in semi synthetic fluids and chemical solutions results in lowering of
pH, production of fungal biomass and foul odours. This microbial invasion can be
readily appreciated when one considers that commonly employed additives in modern
metal-working fluids can be biodegraded by microorganisms. These include
emulsifiers, extreme pressure additives, and corrosion inhibitors. Of particular concern
is the fact that pathogens have been isolated from metal-working fluids, often co-
existing with non-pathogens, and transmitted in 'mists‘ generated by the machines.
Table 5: Fuel fractions obtained from crude oil
Table 6: Consequences of microbial growth in fuel systems
Table 7: Some bacterial and fungal genera capable of growth in or isolated from fuels
Figure 3: Fuel / water sample removed from a diesel storage tank. Note heavy growth at the interface (indicated by arrow)
METALS
• Microorganisms are known to corrode metals. They make biofilm by
colonization / concentration of cells, which release corrosive metabolic
products resulting in removal of hydrogen by sulphate-reducing bacteria.
• Actually, microbial concentrations of the cells appear from an oxygen gradient
that develops as a microbial colony, in contact with the metal, and utilizes the
available oxygen. These colonies have both oxygen-accessible (border) and
oxygen-limited zone (centre), which are having negative and positive charge
particles respectively.
• This leads to metal ion formation by producing insoluble hydroxides. Iron
corrosion occurs mainly due to a bacterium, Gallionella (chemolithotroph) that
oxidizes ferrous ions to ferric ions and forms insoluble ferric hydroxide deposits
at the site of microbial attack.
• Various organic and inorganic acids are of microbial origin for example H.
resinae reduces sulphuric acid to sulphide. The organism comes in contact with
steel / iron resulting in corrosion and breakage / leakage of water pipe lines.
Table 8: Bacteria and fungi isolated from metal-working emulsions
Table 9: Microorganisms which may influence metal corrosion
PLASTICS
• Plastics possess a broad range of chemical and physical properties that may be tailored to meet
the particular requirements of industry. Specifically, they have been formulated for durability to
resist weathering and therefore to resist microbial biodeterioration. Because plastics are both
cheap and relatively easy to produce, they have replaced traditional materials such as wood,
metal and rubber in a broad range of industrial applications. Some of the materials that are
classified as plastics are readily attacked by microorganisms. These include natural rubber and
synthetic rubbers, regenerated and modified celluloses, polyesters and polyurethanes.
• Commercially produced plastics including polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl
chloride and the polyamides (nylons) are generally considered to be inert, but there is evidence
to suggest that they are susceptible to microbial attack under certain conditions. Many plastics
are resistant to microbial attack but addition of various other materials makes the plastics prone
to microbial attack.
• Rubbers and plastics contain a wide variety of additives that are susceptible to damage by
microbes. These include plasticizing compounds such as adipates, ricinolates and sebacates,
which are used to confer flexibility to rigid plastics such as PVC. The effects are often severe and
in some cases unexpected.
• Streptomyces rubireticuli and Penicillium sp. are reported to deteriorate PVC and polyamides
(nylon) respectively. Polyesters, polycaprolactone and polybutylene adipate are degraded by
bacteria and fungi.
COSMETICS AND PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS
• Cosmetics are being manufactured in the form of lotions, creams, liquids, solids and powder
forms. Some are stickers and used externally for cleaning and decorative proposes.
• They consist of large quantity of water, animal, plant / mineral oils, natural gums, thickening
agents, carbohydrates, aroma and flavouring agents in addition to protein hydrolysates, milk,
beer, egg, plant extracts etc. These product formulations are good sources of nutrients for
microbes.
• Although, preservatives are added but due to complex nature of formulations, preservatives
become less effective. Sometimes, creams and lotions are contaminated with pseudomonads,
although low levels of this group of organisms do not harm the individual but if applied to
patients with skin infection / damage, situation may become worse.
• Some of the deteriorated cosmetics impart foul odours due to production of organic acids, fatty
acids, amines, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfides. Production of ammonia or acid alters the pH,
which may change the consistency and colour of the products by developing lumps and slime.
Sometimes, gas bubbles are also generated. Such products later on become unstable and form
separate oil and water phases.
• Various lipids (oils, fats) are susceptible to microbial attack when dispersed in aqueous
formulations after degradation. They give rise to glycerol and fatty acids. The fatty acids may
further break down via β-oxidation to form odorous ketones.
• Many other additive chemicals, particularly glycerol and sorbitol are used in toothpaste etc.
• These allow various microbes to grow and secrete amylases, cellulases etc. responsible for
degradation of such carbon containing microbial nutrients. Shampoo and detergents often
contain sodium dodecyl sulfate which act as substrates for enzyme alkyl sulphatases. The species
of Pseudomonas, Citrobacter and Aerobacter secrete enzymes that breakdown the finished items
and may generate unpleasant odour, particularly H2S.
• Pharma products are both sterile (injectable, intravenous infusions etc.) and non-sterile forms
(tablets, capsules, powders, suspensions, syrups). Many non-sterile pharma products contain low
amount of active principles besides a large quantity of additive substances. Similar to cosmetic
and lotions, they many contain preservatives. The presence of low levels of pathogenic
microorganisms, higher level of opportunistic pathogens besides contamination with toxic
microbial metabolites leads to deterioration.
• Various disinfectants contain ammonia compounds, reported to be contaminated with
pseudomonads, for example Pseudomonas aeruginosa contaminates eye drops, washes and
mascara, etc. Some injectables contain Gram-negative bacteria, fungi etc. which produce
endotoxins (pyrogens) that directly induce fever. For safe practices, use of ultrapure water is
recommended in the manufacture of intravenous drugs and infusions.
• The active ingredients may also become ineffective due to microbial contamination. It leads to
breakdown of antibiotics (e.g. penicillin is attacked by β-lactamases). Such enzymes are secreted
by various groups of microorganisms. Similarly, Aspirin is broken down by Acinetobacter iwoffii,
Atropine is degraded by Pseudomonas and Corynebacterium spp., and Cladosporium herbarum
causes spoilage of hydrocortisone.
Figure 4a: Surface mould growth on a moisturizing cream Figure 4b: Surface mould growth on a wet wipe (left);
right-hand sample preserved
PAINT
• Only water-based-paints are susceptible to biodeterioration during
their manufacture which may give rise to in-can problems. Thinning of
the paint results when the thickener, usually a cellulose ether, is
attacked by cellulase enzymes produced by bacteria and fungi
introduced into the formulation via contaminated components. Talc,
which is used as an extender in paint formulation, has been cited as a
possible source of contamination.
• The detection of contaminants at the surface of emulsion paint
(Figure 3a), together with gas evolution (the production of 'off
odours') have also been attributed to microbial contamination.
• Films of oil- and water-based paints are colonized by micro-organisms
on the outside (Figure 3b) and inside of buildings. This aspect of
biodeterioration can be both unsightly and hazardous to health.
Figure 5a: Infected paint in a can Figure 5b: Algal growth on the outside of a public house
Table 10: Microorganisms isolated from paint

Bacteria
SAFE PRACTICES
• Microbial quality control is a necessary step to check the deterioration of crude and finished
materials. It is conducted to monitor microbial contamination of raw materials, to monitor
and confirm the efficacy of operations such as sterilization, to control the pathogenic
microorganisms (by their absence), and to evaluate the expected storage period.
• The assessment is carried out by total microbial count and/or estimation of groups, e.g.
conforms, or the detection of specific microorganisms. Further microbial activity within a
product may also be confirmed from changes occurring to the pH, viscosity, stability, etc. As
stated, spoilage may also occur due to the presence of dangerous metabolite products of
microbial origin. Some of the fungi are responsible for the mycotoxins production.
• Similarly, presence of endotoxins (pyrogens) can be deducted readily via the Limulus test
(amoebocyte lysate assay.) The detection of microbial enzymes is often important as they
too can persist after cell death. Many hydrolysate enzymes (cellulase) can pose to product
storage life.
• On the other hand, to test the efficacy of preservatives challenge test examine their
effectiveness by utilizing biodeteriogens, or a group of standard organisms such as P.
aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger. Soil burial tests
are useful techniques for solid building, furnishing and clothing materials.
FACTORS FAVOURING DETERIORATION OF MATERIALS
• The process of biodeterioration is supported by several factors which is a complex interplay of the
effects of climate or meteorological factors, biological processes and chemical processes.
• The major environmental factors involved in the deterioration of materials include:
1. Moisture
2. Temperature
3. Solar radiation
4. Relative humidity
5. Air movement and pressure
6. Precipitation
7. Light
Others are:
• Chemical and biochemical attack
• Intrusion of macro-microorganism
• The type of substrate
• Ventilation
Moisture
• Moisture and temperature affect the chemical, biological, and mechanical processes of decay. The formation of a moisture
layer on the material surface is dependent upon precipitation. It may also be generated as a result of the reaction of adsorbed
water with the material surface, deposited particles with the material surface, and deposited particles with reactive gases.
Relative humidity
• Humidity favors the growth of algae and fungi. Among climatic factors, humidity plays the most important role in outdoor
metal corrosion. In the absence of atmospheric moisture, there will be very limited non pollutant-induced and pollutant-
induced corrosion. The rate and nature of the corrosion is a function of relative humidity, sunlight radiation, surface
contaminants, the properties of the film of electrolytes formed on the metal surface, and the duration of the effect on the
metallic surface.
Temperature
• Temperature affects the processes of deterioration of a material gradually and in a variety of ways. Changes in temperature
induce a thermal gradient between the surface layer and the inner layer of materials (particularly in materials with lower
thermal conductivity), which may result in the degradation of the material. Mechanical properties of the material land can
lead to the formation of fine cracks. The formation of cracks is accompanied by a loss of strength and by an increase in
material porosity, which may lower the chemical resistance of the material.
Solar Radiation
• Solar radiation causes temperature changes in materials and may induce volume changes of material in the pores due to
expansion of water which is heated by solar radiation. Solar radiation plays an important role in photochemical reactions since
it supplies the energy for the excitation or splitting of bonds in the reacting molecules. Adequate intensity of solar radiation at
suitable wavelengths is an essential condition for photochemical reactions that influence the deterioration of different
construction materials.
Light
• Light, both natural and artificial, is necessary for photosynthetic microorganisms for example, algae and Cyanobacteria, lichens,
mosses, and plants.
These natural factors continuously promote weathering and material decay including metal corrosion. There are four mechanisms involved in
the deterioration of different materials and structures. An understanding of these would aid in evaluating the influence of the above listed
environmental factors. They are:
1. Erosion
2. Volume change of the material
3. Dissolution of material and the associated chemical changes
4. Biological processes.
Erosion: Can be described as continuous recession of a surface because of localized impact in an outdoor environment. suspended abrasive
particles usually cause erosion of materials mostly by fine solid particles moving against the material surface by flowing fluids.
Changes in volume of the material: This is a function of temperature, solar radiation and humidity. The contraction and expansion of a material
caused by heat is influenced by temperature difference which is in the open environment and depends largely on time and degree of exposure
to sun rays (solar radiation) and the direction the material surface faces. Volume variation occurs due to uneven distribution of moisture content
in a material surface can be caused by rainfall, fog or wind, an attack of the material can be caused by differential moisture content through the
layer of a homogenous material since the side with a lower moisture content will expand less than that with a higher moisture content.
Dissolution of material and the associated chemical changes: Chemically induced damage involves dissolution, oxidation and hydrolysis. The
damage will occur as a result of the interaction between the material and natural constituents, chemicals and amount of water present. The
interactions will vary depending on the reactivity of the material, the character of the intercepting surface, the exposure time and the nature of
the contaminants. The chemical changes are enhanced by heat (most chemical reactions proceed more rapidly as the temperature increases).
Therefore chemical changes occur more in one climate. The dissolution of building materials especially structures with carbonate is most
frequently caused by the action of acidic solution such as rain which contains carbonic acids or both carbonic acids and sulphuric acids. The
effects of these acids is weathering of a surface. Oxidation of a material by atmosphere oxygen results in the chemical changes in the formation
or composition of the material (especially surface) e.g. reaction of metal ions with oxygen to form oxides or hydroxides. Hydrolysis can cause the
dissolution of a material or cause a chemical change in its composition simply by a reaction between a material and water.
Biological processes: Biological factors cause deterioration through biochemical effects and intrusion of organisms. The former is a crucial or
essential factor in biodeterioration of building structures as the metabolites (enzymes, excrements or feaces) of micro and macro organisms,
plant and animals living in a material can cause chemical damage of the material. Fungi hyphae, lichens and plant root systems which spread
through structures can induce a mechanical damage. Also, boring insects may destroy structure cohesion which can encourage water
penetration more quickly and deeply facilitating other deteriorating processes.
MAJOR MICROBIAL GROUPS INVOLVED IN BIODETERIORATION
BACTERIA
• The bacterial chemical action constitutes the major risk for the deterioration of stone. Especially harmful are
those bacteria that obtain carbon from carbondioxide or energy from light or by chemical redox reaction. Some
are capable of utilizing inorganic compounds e.g. sulphur and nitrogen to produce sulphuric and nitric acids.
These acids influence the pH of the environment where they live and cause damage to various stone structures.
Example of a bacterium that uses the oxidation of hydrogen sulphide and sulphur as an energy source and
converts this form of sulphur to sulphuric acid are the species in the genus Thiobacillus.
• Sulphate reducing bacteria having the unique ability to convert sulphate to produce sulphites as metabolites are
well known for the damage they cause to metals. Desulfovibro vulgaris and Desulfotomaculum nigrificans
produce H2S that induce this corrosion on different systems. Examples of systems that can experience corrosion
include oil and gas pipelines, gas distribution systems and sewage systems. Sulphate reducing bacteria use
sulphate ions from the surrounding micro environment as an oxygen source for the oxidation of metals. The
catalysers of this process are the enzymes of the bacteria. The product of redox reactions in these processes is
sulphide which is released. Microorganisms will support the corrosion of metals using corrosion products.
• Bacteria may lead to a change in the physical characteristics of wood e.g. permeability and absorptibility which
can lead to loss of strength. Some bacteria such as those belonging to the genus Cytophaga are highly
specialised in the only substrate they can use as a carbon and energy source, cellulose. They can completely
destroy the structure of cellulose fibres. These bacteria are highly distributed in soil, continental waters and
seawaters.
• The genus Clostridium is involved in anaerobic decomposition of cycles. Likewise, Actinomycetes play an
important role in the decomposition of organic materials. This group of bacteria is usually a unicellular mycelium
with long branching hyphae that attack substances such as cellulose, hemicellulose, chitin, certain and
decompose lignin. They occur in both freshwater and salt water and soil.
ALGAE
Algae are another group of microorganisms that grow in water film and on stone surface, causing deterioration. They are
also found in buildings, on limestone, sandstone as well as historical objects. Algae also attack stones by exhaled CO 2
which in the presence of water supports the dissolution of the carbonated components of stone. Again, mechanical
deterioration of stone occurs if algae develops to an extent that the multicellular colonies generated increases the
pressure on the walls of the pores thereby damaging the stones. Some algae living within the stone may contribute to this
aggregation of the stone.
FUNGI
Most fungi are organisms with mycelium as their vegetative structure. Fungi can destroy the structural integrity of a
material mechanically and chemically. Mechanical damage to stone, concrete and other building materials is caused by
the intrusion of the hyphae into the structure and by the contraction and expansion of the mycelium with changing
humidity. Mechanically, the hyphae grow into the structure. The fungi can colonise and form a film over the surface of the
stone which blocks the pores. Any moisture that does penetrate through the stone will dry out more slowly which makes
the material stay wetter for a long period which enables dissolved salt to penetrate more deeply. Wood destroying fungi
induce several types of decay ranging from the formation of mycelia on the wood surface to destruction of wood and rot.
Notably each species of fungus may attack different parts within the wood. Examples of the class fungi that can cause
biodeterioration include Basidiomycetes, Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes.
LICHENS
Lichens excrete organic acids that attack materials and produce compounds such as salts of salicylic acid and tartaric acid
which also degrade carbonates in an alkaline medium. Lichens have hyphae that can grow through the pores in stones.
After absorbing water, they enlarge considerably in volume and affect the wall of pores by applying pressure on them.
Lichens are extremely sensitive to gaseous sulphur compounds which account for their rare occurrence in polluted areas.
MOSSES
Mosses often grow on the surface of stones that are covered by humus. They have the ability to absorb large quantity of
water and they also produce organic acids.
BIODETERIORATION CONTROL
• The main effort in the field of biodeterioration has been to develop methods for preventing the biodeterioration of materials and thus
preserve their value and usefulness for as long as possible. The first use of preventative methods was to enable the storage of
foodstuffs after harvest or hunting, and these involved physical / mechanical techniques such as heat, cold, drying, osmotic pressure,
and the use of mechanical barriers. Chemical methods were first introduced as fumigants (sulfur) and then as salts of mercury, copper,
and zinc in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries for preserving timber and other natural products in storage.
• Biodeterioration is a worldwide challenge, which should be prevented. These include methods such as:
1. The use of fungicides
2. Biological control
3. Prevention of biodeterioration by control of environmental conditions
4. Periodic cleaning of dirt, dusts and spores
5. The use of radiation
• These methods require understanding of risk-benefit relationship of treatment relative to the materials. This means that one needs to
exercise care in altering the environment conditions surrounding an object, restrict the use of any active chemical toxins and test how
or whenever possible, the treatment on similar materials before applying a treatment reported allegedly to be safe.
• Fungal infection of materials can be controlled by drying, proper cleaning and storage at 50 – 60 % relative humidity. In the museum
at constant temperature, there is little chance for most fungal spores to germinate. This seems to be due to the fact that the spores
will not enter dormancy. If spores are frozen and dried, they may enter a dormant state and thus will be potentially viable years later.
Microbes can persist in dry environment. Active metabolism, however requires appropriate levels of relative humidity and
temperature. A combination of low humidity and low temperature is the simplest way to control microbial growth but this treatment
may be less effective for control of fungi and it is impractical in outdoor situations. Regular cleaning may be the most effective
treatment for preventing biofilm formation and subsequent biodeterioration of materials such as historic buildings, monument and
other materials.
• Biodeterioration control can be grouped as physical, chemical or biological.
PHYSICAL METHODS
Refrigeration down to −20 °C is often necessary to retard growth over a long period, although slow-growing moulds have
been reported in large cold stores. It is usually accepted that growth is inhibited at the temperature at which the cell
contents freeze. The ability of some organisms to produce their own intracellular ‘antifreeze’ may account for continued
growth in extreme cold. These osmolytes were first described in fungi by Nickerson and Carroll in 1945; they protect
against freezing, excessive heat, and desiccation. Their presence has been recorded in all forms of life except protozoa,
myxobacteria, and some simple animals. It is not uncommon for fungal growth to occur on foods stored in domestic
refrigerators where the temperature may be between 4 and 6 ◦C. At the other end of the temperature spectrum,
temperatures in excess of 40 ◦C will reduce the activity of a number of organisms, although temperatures above boiling
point will be necessary for severe reductions in the viability of organisms which produce spores.
Complete sterilization is effected only at 121 °C for a min of 15 min by a pressurized autoclave at 1.05 kgf/cm 2 (15 lb/in.2).
Bulky materials should be kept under these conditions for 60 min to allow for complete penetration of the heat. The exact
procedure used will depend upon the thermostability of the product being sterilized. The procedure previously described
is practised only in the food and pharmaceutical industries, where pathogens such as thermophilic genera of Clostridium
and Bacillus must be controlled.
Heating to 60 ◦C by the technique of ‘solar bagging’ is used to eliminate pest infestations in museum artefacts. The
materials are wrapped in black plastic sheets and exposed to the sun. The temperature rises rapidly, and adult insects,
eggs, and the intermediate stages are killed by dehydration within a matter of hours. This is a low-tech method, ideal for
use in hot countries. The use of flash heating, pasteurization, and localized increases in temperature in recirculating
systems have been suggested to reduce fungal and bacterial contamination levels in oils and fuels. The partial removal of
water from a product or the maintenance of that product in an atmosphere low in moisture is commonly used in a variety
of familiar situations.
Desiccants are often placed inside the packaging of goods to absorb atmospheric water and reduce the humidity in the
package, which in turn reduces the likelihood of microbial growth. The level of moisture in the air, often given as the
relative humidity, depends on the temperature, and both these parameters influence the expected lifetime of an object.
Although moisture content is an easily measured and monitored parameter, it is not an absolute indicator of the potential
for microbial growth on a material.
Water Activity
The water activity (Aw) of a material is a measure of the availability of the water, in this context, to the microorganism and
the atmosphere in which it grows. It is expressed as the ratio of the vapour pressure of water over the material to the
vapour pressure over pure water at the same temperature. The water activity of pure water is thus 1.0, and this decreases
as solutes are added. There is a direct relationship with the relative humidity of the surrounding atmosphere, and when the
system containing the material is in equilibrium at a constant temperature, we can measure the equilibrium relative
humidity (ERH), which is expressed as a percentage. Thus a sample of cereal grain with a water activity of 0.75 will
equilibrate with the surrounding air to produce an ERH of 75.0%. Such a figure can be related to ranges of water activity
which permit the growth of microorganisms. Because of the variation in chemical composition of materials, the same
moisture content will not necessarily result in the same water activity. Once we have established the relationship between
moisture content and water activity or ERH, moisture content can be used as a reliable measure of the safe level at which
the material may be stored.
Propylene glycol and sorbitol are used in tobaccos and domestic animal food to impart a feeling of moisture or plasticizing
effect on the product. These glycols also reduce the water activity sufficiently to retard the growth of moulds.
Water activity is also reduced by use of inorganic salts and sugars; thus the use of brine pickling for foods and sugar in jams
(known as preservatives).
Radiations such as gamma rays, UV rays, and microwaves have all been employed to a limited extent as sterilizing agents,
often where there has been a large-scale spoilage problem in, for example, a liquid product, and there is a possibility that
the product may be reclaimed or reworked. Gamma irradiation has been used to treat books from a library after flooding
resulted in widespread fungal growth. The ability of the radiation to adequately penetrate the material to be sterilized is
paramount. Thus UV systems have found a niche in the treatment of both potable and recirculating water used in industry,
in which relatively thin films can be made to flow through the source of radiation. Even so, algal growth can develop or dirt
can build up on the surface of the glass tubes through which the water flows, preventing the sterilization process. The
residual preservative activity of irradiation is nil, and other precautions must be subsequently used to prevent reinfection.
Filters are also extensively used as barriers to microorganisms in aqueous recirculation systems. Membrane filters with pore
sizes of either 0.45 or 0.22 µm are routinely used to trap fungi and bacteria. Larger-pore filters can be employed for
filamentous growths to reduce blockage problems.
DRYING AS A MEANS OF CONTROLLING FOOD BIODETERIORATION
Drying is one of the oldest methods of food preservation against microbiological spoilage
as well as biodeterioration. Drying helps to maintain the edible status of food and also
extend their shelf life (life span). The required level of moisture content to prevent
spoilage achieved in a drying process depends on the microbes present. Sometimes, pre-
drying operations such as osmotic dehydration and evaporation are employed to reduce
water concentration to the desired level.
Drying usually refers to the process of liquid water being evaporated from the surface of
the product or from the pores within the product. Sometimes additional heat is usually
required to accelerate the drying process. The heat can be supplied in many ways
including solar energy, microwave or hot gas strain.
There are two different types of drying processes which are in-air or in-vacuum drying.
For the vacuum drying, they are useful to remove water vapour when the products are
best treated in the absence of air, and where relatively low temperatures are preferred.
Air Drying: No matter the mechanism of heat supply, e.g. microwave, radiation or
conduction, air is frequently used as the medium to remove water vapour from a moist
material. It is a slow process, although air flows with a high velocity relative to the food
product being dried are employed to increase mass and heat transfer. Hot air drying is the
most common method used in the industries.
CHEMICAL METHODS
The chemicals used in controlling biodeterioration in materials come in the form of gases
(fumigants), dispersable powders, and liquids.
Gaseous sterilization or fumigation is used to decontaminate materials which have already
been infested with insects or microorganisms and which are not amenable to other forms of
sterilization such as heat, radiation, or the addition of toxic chemicals in solution or
suspension. Their successful use requires specialist knowledge and equipment to cope with
the attendant dangers in handling the sterilants. Ethylene oxide and propylene oxide are used
for bacteria and fungi control in some countries (ethylene oxide is banned in the UK except
for some specialist medical applications). Their advantage lies in their ability to penetrate
packed materials such as bales of tobacco. The materials are placed in chambers in which a
vacuum is drawn before introduction of the sterilant (at defined concentration, temperature,
and humidity) to encourage good penetration.
Chemical preservatives are variously referred to as biocides, bactericides, fungicides,
fungistats, antifouling compounds, and material protectants. The term preservative is
probably the most accurate descriptive term for general use, because it infers that the
protected material maintains its integrity and performance characteristics during storage and
use. The term biocide is however used to describe the range of chemicals used to combat
biodeterioration in a wide range including industrial products, although we still talk of wood
preservatives and antifouling compounds in the building and boat industries, respectively.
BIOCIDES:
The application of biocides has become a routine, a practice in the conservation of materials. Biocides are
chemical substances designed to inhibit or prevent the growth of microbes when applied on surfaces.
However, environmental issues have severely limited the number of available infective biocides or
subsidal biocides used in the conservation of materials. Biofilm bacterial respond differently to biocide
and are generally more resistant than unattached cells. Because microbes are capable of rapidly acquiring
chemical resistance, no single chemical can be relied on for long term use. Frequently or most times,
several chemicals need to be combined to achieve effective eradication of biofilm population.
Disadvantages
Biocides are very difficult tools for preservation because many are too caustic for environmental use, they
are not strong enough to discourage microbial growth or the microbe ultimately develops resistance.
CONSOLIDANTS
They have been used over time to conserve archaeological stones, rocks or building surfaces from
biological and chemical weathering. Consolidation is a means of generating structural strength in
disintegrating materials and it is an artificial means of repairing the damage caused by natural processes.
The efficacy of consolidants on outdoor stones is controversial because they can distort or upset the
natural saturation and evaporation of moisture from within the stone often resulting in exfoliation and
cracking of stone surfaces. Some consolidants may also discolour as they degrade because of aging,
photochemical processes and oxidation. However, the addition of biocides to consolidants would help to
prevent microbial deterioration, increasing the longevity of the treatments. More preferably,
environmentally acceptable biocides should be used as additives in consolidants.
BIOLOGICAL METHODS
The use of one biological agent to suppress another is a strategy which receives periodic attention,
particularly when it fails to achieve the desired result and the balance of nature is disturbed. One
example in the control of wood decay is the use of immunizing commensals. Studies have shown
that the fungus Scytalidium lignicola is antagonistic to Lentinus lepideus, a wood-decaying fungus.
Trichoderma viride has also been used commercially. It may be introduced as a slug (spores of the
fungus mixed in a dehydrated nutrient matrix and pressed into a pill) into the trunk of a standing
tree; in a similar situation, the technique has also been suggested for protecting electricity
transmission and telegraph poles. As biotechnological research develops as a discipline, the search
for microbially produced chemical agents with highly specific antagonistic properties may see a
resurgence, particularly in the control of contamination of fermentation processes.
Some scientists have divided the control of biodeteriogens into two methods, which are direct and
indirect methods:
the indirect methods involves modification of the climatic parameters of the surrounding
environment which include; humidity, light, temperature and nutrient sources. These can be
relatively possible for indoor sites or indoor materials while it is only partially applicable for
outdoor materials e.g. (by avoiding the direct rainfall, wall surfaces, roofs and surfaces).
The most widely used direct method consists of biomass removal (mechanical method), use of
lamps with wavelengths that are non-compliable with the photosynthetic activities of
biodeteriogens (physical method), and the application of compounds with biocide activity or
consolidants (chemical method).
IMPACT OF PROCESSING AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES ON
BIODETERIORATION
• Even though one can regard the influence of microbial activity on materials e.g. construction and heritage materials
as negative, the same metabolic pathways involved in degradation can be exploited to increase the stability of these
materials. By prolonging the life cycle of construction materials, microbial biotechnology can contribute directly to
make our cities more sustainable. In addition, given the societal importance of cultural heritage, microbial
biotechnology can help to preserve an important component of human legacy.
• Using microbial metabolisms for the safeguard of human-made structures and cultural heritage offers both
opportunities and challenges. A major advantage is compatibility with the treated substrate. For example, while the
application of organic coatings to inorganic substrates is a common practice in conservation – restoration of metal
sculptures, these coatings create a physical barrier that has a different behaviour than the metal core and will
eventually become inefficient. Formation of biogenic minerals (biomineralization) that integrate into the natural
corrosion patina formed on the metal substrate generates a compatible passivating layer with extended efficiency.
When applied to stonework, this process is dubbed biodeposition and involves microbiologically induced calcite
precipitation.
• Another important asset of biotechnological approach is the possibility to combine those with chemical remediation
methods. This is exemplified in the removal of surface deposits from stonework using sulfate-reducing bacteria, and
its combination with further treatment using biocides to eliminate microorganisms contributing to biodeterioration.
• In addition to remediatory treatments, many biotechnological approaches are attractive because of their preventive
nature e.g. manufacturing of self-healing materials. Self-healing materials have an enormous potential specially
under conditions requiring long-term reliability and with poor accessibility to the infrastructure. Some of these
technologies include biological mortar, crack remediation, bacterial concrete and self-healing concrete.
• Other technologies basically prevent microbial growth and activities as enumerated under biodeterioration control.
Mycotoxins
• In 1960, following the death of poultry in the UK subsequently linked to the use of mouldy peanut
meal from a common source in the feed, and the death of trout on fish farms in the United
States, a series of investigations was initiated, leading to the discovery of a previously
unrecognized range of fungal toxins, the mycotoxins, which have great significance in human and
animal health. The fact that some fungi are poisonous has been recognized since ancient times.
Poisonous mushrooms and toadstools (loose terms but commonly used) feature in the folklore of
many nations, but poisoning by eating the fruit body of mushrooms and toadstools, termed
mycetism, differs from mycotoxicosis, in which a foodstuff contaminated with a microfungus and
its toxic metabolites is consumed.
• Favourable conditions for mycotoxin production occur where humidity and moisture are high;
grains and nuts tend to be the most susceptible materials.

Mycotoxin Causative Organism

Aflatoxin Aspergillus flavus
Patulin Penicillium sp. and Aspergillus on apples and grain
Ochratoxin Aspergillus sp. and Penicillium sp. on grains
Trichothecenes Fusarium sp., Mycothecium sp. and Stachybotrys sp. on cereals, grass, hay and grain
Zearalenone Fusarium sp. on grain
Sporodesmin Pithomyces chartarum on grass litter
TEST
• Distinguish between preservatives and biocides (4 marks).
• Give an example each of a household preservative and biocide (1 mark).
• In a tabular form, mention three types of mycotoxins and the causative organisms (3 marks)
• What is biodeterioration and how does it differ from biodegradation (4 marks)
• Mention the types of biodeterioration and explain any one (6 marks)
• Describe water activity of a food material (2 marks)
• Give a scenario of biodeterioration of a personal material (food, paper, paint, textile, fuel etc.)
describing the processes involved? (3 marks)
• What are those things that could have caused it? (2 marks)
• How did you (or how can you) prevent or control the deterioration? (2 marks)
• Mention 3 microorganisms (generic and specific names) involved in biodeterioration (3 marks).