Module 6

LONG TERM MEMORY

INTRODUCTION

Psychologists often talk about different types of memory. Long-term memories

are a type of relatively lasting memory. What distinguishes these memories are that
they tend to be stable and can last a long time—often for years.

Long-term memory refers to the storage of information over an extended period.

If you can remember something that happened more than just a few moments ago,
whether it occurred just hours ago or decades earlier, then it is a long-term memory.
Some important things to know about long-term memory are discussed below.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module, students are able to:

1. Define what is long term memory.

2. Describe the characteristics, duration and capacity of long term memory.

3. Identify different types of long term memory.

4. Understand long term memory loss.

DISCUSSION

 Long-term memories are often outside of the conscious mind. This

information is largely outside of our awareness but can be called into working
memory to be used when needed. Some memories are relatively easy to recall,
while others are much harder to access.
 Not all long-term memories are created equal. While some memories spring
to mind quickly, others are weaker and might require prompts or reminders to
bring them into focus. Information that is of greater importance leads to a
stronger recall. You can usually remember important events such as your
wedding day with much greater clarity and detail than you can less memorable
days.
 Memories that are frequently accessed become stronger and easier to
recall. Accessing these memories over and over again strengthens the neural
networks in which the information is encoded, leading to the easier recollection of
the information. Memories that are not recalled often can sometimes weaken or
even be lost or replaced by other information.
Types of Long-term Memory

Long-term is divided into many types.

Explicit Memory

Explicit memory usually refers to all the memories and information that can be evoked
consciously. The encoding of explicit memories is done in the hippocampus but they
are stored somewhere in the temporal lobe of the brain. The medial temporal lobe is
also involved in this type of memory.

The other name used for explicit memory is declarative memory. Explicit or declarative
memory is divided into two types: episodic and semantic memory.

1. Episodic Memory
 Episodic memory stores information about events that happen in a person’s
life. It refers to knowing the time and place and details of events. Some
examples of episodic memory would be the memory of 1st day of your
marriage, or memory of tour to another country and all the events that
happened there.
2. Semantic Memory
 Semantic memory is responsible for the storage of factual information such as
the meaning of words or general knowledge of things. An example of
semantic memory would be knowing that Jupiter is the biggest planet of the
solar system. Semantic memory involves conscious thought. Very few
differences have been seen in the encoding of semantic information in adults
and younger people.

Implicit Memory

Implicit memory is the opposite of declarative memory. It refers to the movement of the
body in using objects. An example of implicit memory would be how to ride a bicycle.
Several brain areas which include basal ganglia, parietal and occipital regions are
involved in implicit memory. This type of memory is largely independent of the
hippocampus. Writing, riding, driving, and swimming are all examples of implicit
memory because they are non-declarative.

1. Procedural Memory
 Procedural memory is the memory of motor skills and it is responsible for
knowing how to do things. This memory is automatic i.e. it works at an
 unconscious level. Procedural memories are non-declarative and retrieved
automatically for in procedures that involve motor skills. For example, riding
a bicycle is a type of procedural memory.

2. Associative Memory
 Associative memory usually refers to the storage and retrieval of specific
information through association. The acquisition of this type of memory is
carried out with two types of conditioning. One is classical conditioning and
the other is operant conditioning. Classical conditioning (Ivan pavlov)
refers to the learning process in which stimuli and behavior are associated.
Bell sound plus food triggers salivation in dogs, bell sound alone triggers
salivations, On the other side, operant conditioning (B.F Skinner) is a
learning process in which new behaviors develop according to the
consequences.
3. Non-associative
 Non-associative memory refers to the learning of new behaviors mainly
through repeated exposure to a single type of stimuli. The new behavior is
classified into habituation and sensitization. Habituation is the decrease in
response to repeated stimuli while sensitization is an increased response to
repeated stimuli. Ex. of habituation, noisy neignbors and perfume smells living
in an airport
Sensitization example PTSD, phobias sensitivity to stimulus
4. Priming
 Studies have shown that exposure to certain stimuli influences the response
of a person to stimuli that are presented later. This effect of previous memory
on new information is what we call priming.

Difference between Short and Long-term Memory

It is thought that Long-term memories differ from short-term memories in the aspect of
their longer duration. But the difference between these two types depends upon their
definition by someone. Defining both types of memories in clear terms in the first step
of differentiating between them.

These memories differ in two fundamental aspects. The first is the duration and the
second being chunk (amount or portion) capacity limits. There is a huge difference
between the duration of these types of memories. Long-term memory has a duration of
months and years while short-term memories are thought to stay only a few seconds.
There is also a difference in capacity. Short-term memory stores only a tiny bit of
information. On the other side, the capacity of long-term memory is thought to unlimited.

Physiologically, the process of establishment of long-term memory differs from that of

short-term memory. It involves a change in neuronal structure i.e. long-term
potentiation. New neural networks are created and strengthen. The neurons
communicate with each other through synapses. The release of neurotransmitters in
synaptic clefts enhances the communication between the cells. This whole process
does not take place during the creation of short-term memories. Unlike short-term
memory, the long-term memories are forgotten only in the case superimposition
of a new neural network over the older network.

Short-term memories can be changed into long-term memories through

consolidation, a process involving rehearsal and association of information.
Short-term memory relies on visual and acoustic encoding while long-term
memories are encoded semantically.

Memory Encoding and its Types

Memory encoding refers to the changing of sensory stimuli or information so that it can
be stored and retrieved. The information undergoes this process so that it can become
a part of long-term storage. The properly encoded information is very easy to be
recalled. There are three main types of memory encoding: visual, acoustic, and
semantic.

Visual encoding is converting a visual stimulus to store the information in the brain.
This information is first stored in the visuospatial sketchpad. Then, it is temporarily
stored in working or iconic memory before its storage in long-term memory.

Acoustic encoding refers to the encoding of acoustic information to understand the

acoustic aspects of an event. It is the processing of sounds, words, and other auditory
information to store that information in long-term memory. An important part of acoustic
information is the phonological loop.part of working memory that deals with
auditory info, holds the words we hear

Information that has a particular meaning or context is processed in a way that is called
semantic encoding. Concepts, Ideas, and terms are some examples of semantic
information. The semantically encoded information is relatively easy to be retrieved.
There are also some other types of memory encoding which may include tactile
encoding, etc.
Capacity and duration of Long-term Memory

The first factor that influences the duration of long-term memory is the way
memory was encoded. Optimally encoded memories last much longer than
shallow processed memories.

Another factor is the retrieval of memory. The number of times a specific memory is
accessed plays an important role in the strengthening of memory. This is probably the
reason for better retrieval of information that is repeated and practiced again and
again. Giving attention and focus to the information makes it stick to the brain for
a relatively long time.

The capacity of long-term memory is thought to have no limits. According to some

studies, the upper bound on the size of visual and acoustic long-term memory has not
been reached. We may find it difficult to encode the details of many events but under
certain conditions, a person succeeds when he focuses and tries to encode the
information.

Changes in Long-term Memories

Long-term memories are not permanently stored in their original condition. Memories
are susceptible to change, interference, and also misinformation. Memories are
transformed every time they are pulled up. In the process of encoding, the neurons first
encode memories in the hippocampus and brain cortices. Whenever a memory is
retrieved, it is re-encoded by similar neurons, but not identical to previous ones.

Re-encoding of memories have a great impact on their storage. Details of the memory
may change due to re-encoding. Certain aspects of long-term memory may strengthen
or weakened depending upon the types of neurons activated. These memories are
susceptible to inaccuracies because people sometimes miss details of events. The
brain then fabricates the details to fill in the missing gaps. In some cases, old memories
may affect the formation of new memories. This may lead to the change in memories or
encoding of false memories.

Long-term Memory loss

Long-term memory loss refers to the difficulty in recalling the information. It can also be
a sign of some serious problems such as dementia.loss of cognitive functioning,
thinking, remembering, reasoning

Sign and Symptoms

Here are some signs and symptoms of long-term memory loss.

 Forgetting early life events

 Mixing up names of persons and places
 Excessive irritability and mood changes
 Forgetting common and easy words
 Getting lost in previously familiar places
 Trouble in recalling details of events
 Taking a longer time to do familiar tasks

Causes of Memory Loss

There are many causes of long-term memory loss. These causes can be classified into
reversible and irreversible causes. Reversible causes can be treated. Examples of
these causes include:

 Depression and anxiety

 Vitamin B-12 deficiency lack RBC anemia, organs don’t get enough oxygen
 Hydrocephalus
 Mental health problems
In some cases, loss of long-term memory may be a result of brain injury. the causes of
brain damage are:

 Alcohol
  Brain infections
 Brain tumors
 Stroke
 Oxygen deficiency
 Drug abuse
Irreversible causes of long-term memory include Alzheimer’s disease and dementias.
Alzheimer’s disease causes memory loss, difficulty in comprehension, reasoning, and
judgment. Dementia is also a big problem in developed countries. Its first symptom is
short-term memory loss which is then followed by long-term memory loss.

Diagnosis

Taking the history of patients is the first step in diagnosing long-term memory loss. This
history should cover medical history, family history, and history of medication.

The second step in diagnosing this condition is a physical exam. The physical exam
may include checking for muscle weakness, brain damage, and vitamin deficiencies.
Sometimes complex neuropsychological testing is done to diagnose this condition.

Treatment

There are various treatments for this condition depending upon the underlying cause. If
the underlying cause can be removed easily, then it is removed. Otherwise in conditions
like Alzheimer’s disease, Cholinesterase inhibitors, and partial N-methyl D-aspartate
(NMDA) antagonists are prescribed by the physician. Regular exercise, adequate sleep,
and a healthy diet may also help in some cases.

Ways to Improve Long-term Memory

Attention

Attention is an important requirement to improve long-term memory. Actively attend the

information being presented to make it a part of long-term memory. Students should
stay away from distractions such as television, music, smartphones.

Good Night-Sleep

Quality sleep is known to optimize the neural processes of the brain. Slow-wave sleep
has shown an important role in the consolidation of long-term memories. Sleep
deprivation impairs the ability of the brain to encode new memories during the daytime.
Optimal sleep of 7-8 hours a day is always recommended.

Exercise
Exercise is known to activate the muscles and keep the heart working properly, which
has a positive impact on brainpower. Exercise enhances the chemical and
neurotransmitters that empowers the brain to grasp concepts and make them part of
long-term memory.

Retrieval

Retrieval is known to be one of the best strategies to convert short-term memories into
long-term memories. Retrieving information taking tests is an amazing strategy for
students to score more in the exam. Retrieving allows the information to be processed
at a much deeper level than the processing of short-term memory. Memories that are
not retrieved and recalled weaken and are sometimes replaced by other information.

Visualization

Imagination and visualization refer to an association of images with words to improve

neuronal connection strength. Students benefit greatly from visualizing the concepts
and information. This association leads to a great improvement in the storage and
retrieval of long-term memories.

Effects of Certain Drugs on Long-term Memory

Drugs of abuse like cocaine and marijuana damage neurons to a great extent. Sedative
drugs and benzodiazepines which are mind relaxers and stimulants also exert bad
effects on memory.

Some drugs are used as memory supplements. Phosphatidylserine is used for the
treatment of neurological diseases, the diseases which cause brain damage, like
Alzheimer’s disease. These drugs improve cognitive and storage abilities of an
individual. These are used as powerful boosters to improve cognition.

Effects of Alcohol on Long-term Memory

Alcoholic consumptions are mainly associated with the destruction of the hippocampus
and the nerve cells. The nerve cells responsible for memory encoding, storage, and
retrieval are destroyed. An excessive amount of alcohol affects the stomach lining which
causes ulcers and other gastrointestinal problems.

Alcohol also interferes in many ways with thiamine. Firstly, it impairs proper thiamine
intake as alcoholics more often skip meals. Thiamine converts certain carbohydrates to
glucose. Our brain only utilizes glucose for its energy requirements. Once thiamine gets
deficient, there is an improper conversion of carbohydrates to glucose. This may lead to
brain damage.

Summary

Long term memory is the information stored in the brain for a long time that can be
recalled with ease.

Long term memories are divided into explicit and implicit ones.

Explicit or declarative memories are those that can be recalled consciously. These
include memories related to some events called episodic memories, and memories
about some facts called semantic memories.

Implicit memories are related to some skills that a person learns. They cannot be
recalled consciously. These include skills like riding, writing, speaking, swimming, etc.

Long term memories last for much longer time as compared to short term memories and
have unlimited storage capacity.

Long term memories are encoded in three ways.

 Visual encoding involves the conversion of visual stimuli or information

 Acoustic encoding involves audio information
 Semantic encoding involves concepts and ideas
The capacity of long-term memory depends on the way it is encoded and the number of
times it has been assessed or recalled.

Memories are not stored in their original form. They undergo certain changes during
encoding and re-encoding of memories.

Long term memories are not stored in one specific region of the brain. Rather, they are
stored in the form of circuits throughout the nervous system.

Long term memory loss can be seen in different memory disorders. The patient
presents with a number of signs and symptoms. There might be a number of causes for
memory loss.

The capacity of long-term memory can be also be improved in several ways.

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