BIOLOGY OF TROPICAL

PARASITES
ZOO 301
(2-1-0) (3 UNITS)
OUTLINE
• Classification
• Adaptation
• Morphology
• Anatomy
• Life Cycle and
• Other Features of Interest in:
1. Protozoans
2. Platyhelminthes.
• Drawing Particular Attention to the Various Adaptations to the
Drawing of Life Exhibited by Selected Members of the Group.
PARASITOLOGY AND OTHER EPIDEMIOLOGICAL TERMS
• Medical parasitology: “the study and medical implications of parasites that infect humans”
• A parasite: “a living organism that acquires some of its basic nutritional requirements through its intimate
contact with another living organism”. Parasites may be simple unicellular protozoa or complex multicellular
metazoan
The relationship between the parasites and host occurs in 2 form:
• Commensalism: one of two organisms (commensal) benefits while the other host is unaffected (no benefit, no
harm), commensal organism referred as non pathogenic.
• Parasitism : one of two organisms (parasite) benefits, gain shelter and nutrition on the expanse of the other
(host). The host may suffer from wide range of functional and organic disturbances due to such association
(pathogenic).
• An endoparasite: “a parasite that lives within another living organism” – e.g. malaria, Giardia
• An ectoparasite: “a parasite that lives on the external surface of another living organism” – e.g. lice, ticks
• Obligate Parasite - this parasite is completely dependent on the host during a segment or all of its life cycle,
e.g. Plasmodium spp.
• Facultative parasite – an organism that exhibits both parasitic and non-parasitic modes of living and hence
does not absolutely depend on the parasitic way of life, but is capable of adapting to it if placed on a host. E.g.
Naegleria fowleri
• Accidental parasite – when a parasite attacks an unnatural host and survives. E.g. Hymenolepis diminuta (rat
tapeworm).
• Erratic parasite - is one that wanders in to an organ in which it is not usually found. E.g. Entamoeba histolytica
in the liver or lung of humans
• Host: “the organism in, or on, which the parasite lives and causes harm”
• Definitive host: “the organism in which the adult or sexually mature stage of the parasite lives”
• Intermediate host: “the organism in which the parasite lives during a period of its development only”
• Zoonosis: “a parasitic disease in which an animal is normally the host - but which also infects man”
• Vector: “a living carrier (e.g.an arthropod) that transports a pathogenic organism from an infected to a non-infected host”.
A typical example is the female Anopheles mosquito that transmits malaria
• Prevalence = % of infection.
• Intensity = number of parasite in the host.
• Incidence = % of new infection

• Endemicity
• Endemic infection : when a steady rate of parasitic infection is prevalent all year
around in a particular area causing a low rate of morbidity in population of this
area.
• Hyper-endemic infection : when prevalence is high causing a high rate of morbidity.
• Epidemic infection : when there is a sharp increase in the incidence ,prevalence and
morbidity rates . Epidemic outbreaks are usually due to introduction of a new
parasite or vector in a non immune population.
• Sporadic infection : when a parasite appear occasionally in one or few members of
a community.
ROUTES OF PARASITIC INFECTIONS
TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF PARASITIC ORGANISMS
TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION
• Parasites form part of the animal kingdom which
comprises some 800,000 identified species,
categorised into 33 phyla
• The parasitic organisms that are of importance for
human health are eukaryotes - they have a well
defined chromosome in a nuclear membrane (as
opposed to prokaryotes which have no nuclear
membrane, e.g. bacteria)
Parasites are classified into 2 sub-kingdoms:
1. Protozoa (unicellular) and
2. Metazoa (multicellular)
PROTOZOA
• Protozoan (unicellular) parasites are classified according to
morphology and means of locomotion.
• They lack a definite body shape.
• Their locomotory organelles include pseudopodia, flagella or
cilia.
• Most have a single vesicular nucleus, but some are
multinuclease.
• There are 45,000 protozoa species. Most species that cause
human disease belong to the phyla:
i. Sarcomastigophora and
ii. Apicomplexa

• Metazoa (multicellular) include: the worms (helminths) and

arthropoda (possess an external skeleton) e.g. ticks, lice
SARCOMASTOGOPHORA
• Locomotory organelles are flagella or
pseudopodia or both.
• Nucleus single type or monomorphic.
• Spore formation absent
• Sexual reproduction when present is
essentially syngamy.
Subphylum Sarcodina
• Body naked or with external or internal
skeleton
• Organs of locomotion pseudopodia
Subphylum Mastigophora
• Locomotory organs are flagella, one or more
• The thin, firm, elastic outer layer of ectoplasm forms
pellicle
• Nucleus single with karyosomes
Subphylum Opalinata
• Whole body covered with cilia-like organelles
arranged in oblique rows
• Cytostome (cell mouth) absent
• Cytoplasm differentiated into ecto and endoplasm
• Ectoplasm differentiated into a thin outer pellicle and
an inner layer with myonemes.
APICOMPLEXA
• Apical complex, generally consisting of polar
rings
• Microspore(s) generally present at some
stage
• Cilia absent
• Sexuality by syngamy
• All are parasitic.
• Class Sporozoea
CLASSIFICATION OF MEDICALLY IMPORTANT PARASITES

PROTOZOA METAZOA (HELMINTHS)

Sarcodina (Amoebae): Platyhelminthes:
(a) Genus, Entamoeba: Trematodea:
E.g. E. histolytica (a) Genus Schistosoma
(b) Genus Endolimax E.g. S. mansoni
E.g. Endolimax nana (b) Genus Fasciola
(c) Genus Iodameba E.g. F. hepatica
E.g. Iodameba butchlii Cestoda:
(d) Genus Dientmeba (a) Genus Diphylobotrium
E.g. Dientameba fragilis E.g. D. latum
Mastigophora (Flagellates): (b) Genus Taenia
(a) Genus Giardia E.g. T. saginata
E.g. G. lamblia (c) Genus Echinococcus
(b) Genus Trichomonas E.g. E. granulosus
E.g. T. vaginalis (d) Genus Hymenolepsis
(c) Genus Trypanosoma E.g. H. nana
E.g. T. brucei :
(d) Genus Leishmania
E.g. L. donovani
Sporozoa
(1) Genus Plasmodium
E.g. P. falciparum
(2) Genus Toxoplasma
E.g. T. gondii
(3) Genus Cryptosporidum
E.g. C. parvum
(4) Genus Isospora E.g. I. beli
Ciliates
E.g. Balantidium coli
 SARCODINA
Sarcodina (Amoebae): Entamoeba histolytica
Subkingdom Protozoa
Phylum Sarcomastigophora
Subphylum Sarcodina
Class Lobosea
Order Amoebida
Family Endamoebidae
Genus Entamoeba
Species E. histolytica; E. coli; E. gingivalis
• Entamoeba histolytica: may invade the colon and cause bloody diarrhoea – amoebic dysentery. Also causes ameobic liver abscess.
• Protozoa with no truly defined shape
• Move and acquire food through the use of pseudopodia
• Found in water sources throughout the world
• Few cause disease
• Infection occurs by drinking water contaminated with feces containing cysts
Host: Homo sapiens and other primates
Transmission: faecal-oral (alimentary)
Infective stage: mature cyst
Localisation: large intestine
Pathogenicity: 1) Intestinal amoebiasis: formation of ulcerus of the wall of the intestine, acute or chronic diarrhoea, stool containing blood and mucus; may be asymptomatic
infection. 2) Extra- intestinal amoebiasis: abscess of liver, lung, brain, skin.
Laboratory diagnosis: Fresh stools are examined under the microscope. E. histolytica (forma magna and cysts with 4 nuclei) can be demonstrated in the stools.
Prophylaxis: Treatment of patients and asymptomatic cyst carriers; protection of foodstuffs and water from flies and contamination with faeces.
MASTIGOPHORA
Mastigophora (Flagellates):
Class Zoomastigophorea:
1) Motion is by flagella. The flagellum arises from kinetoplast. The kinetoplast is composed of the
blepharoplast and the parabasal body.
2) Vesicular nucleus with central karyosome.
3) Reproduction is by longitudinal binary fission.
4) Complex life cycles include alternation of hosts.
Intermediate hosts commonly serve as vectors, which transport developing parasites from one definitive
host to another.
Parasitic species:
1. parasites of tissues and blood: Their transmission requires a biological vector
a. Trypanosoma
b. Leishmania
2. Species living in the digestive tract and genitals: Transmission does not require a biological vector.
a. Lamblia intestinalis
b. Trichomonas vaginalis
c. Trichomonas hominis
Mastigophora (Flagellates): Giardia lamblia
Subkingdom Protozoa
Phylum Sarcomastigophora
Subphylum Mastigophora
Class Zoomastigophorea
Order Diplomonadida
Family Hexamitidae
Genus Giardia
Species G. lamblia
Characteristics: Cyst ingestion
Trophozoite excyst: Motile due to acid; Attach to mucosa; Absorbs nutrients
Clinical Signs: Diarrhoea, Nausea, Malabsorption
Disease: lambliosis
Morphology: Trophozoites are bilateral, symmetrical, pear-shaped organisms with an elongated posteriоr and two symmetrically placed nuclei. The r and two symmetrically placed nuclei. The
body of the parasite is from 10 to 18 Fm long with four pairs of flagella. Cysts are oval-shaped which are 10-14 Fm and have four nuclei.
Stages: Trophozoite stage; cyst stage
Host: man. (Reservoir host are beavers)
Transmission: faecal-oral (alimentary).
Infective stage: cyst.
Localisation: the small intestine (duodenum) and colon of man; occasionally invades bile ducts and gall-bladder.
Pathogenicity:
Laboratory diagnosis:
Prophylaxis: Antimalaria drugs such as atebrin and chloroquine
Mastigophora (Flagellates): Trichomonas vaginalis
Subkingdom Protozoa
Phylum Sarcomastigophora
Subphylum Mastigophora
Class Zoomastigophorea
Order Trichomonadida
Genus Trichomonas
Species T. vaginalis
Clinical Signs: STD – Female Vaginitis: discharge; Male Urethritis: burning
Disease: Urogenital trichomoniasis
Morphology: Trophozoite is a pear-shaped (7 – 23 Fm long) with four anterior flagella and a fifth forming the edge of an
undulating membrane. The axostyle extends the length of the body.
Stages: Trophozoite stage only
Host: man.
Transmission: by sexual contact; otherwise (through contact with toilet seats and towels, for example).
Localisation: vagina, urethra, prostate.
Pathogenicity:
Laboratory diagnosis:
Prevention: Safe sex
Treatment: Metronidazole
Mastigophora (Flagellates): Trypanosoma brucei
Subkingdom Protozoa
Phylum Sarcomastigophora
Subphylum Mastigophora
Class Zoomastigophorea
Order Kinetoplastida
Family Trypanosomatidae
Genus Trypanosoma
Species T. brucei; T. evansi
Clinical Signs: Fever, malaise; CNS – coma
Disease: African trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness
Arthropod vector: Tsetse fly
Parasites: Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense
Trypanosomes: Picked up in blood; Development in fly (gut and salivary gland)
Morphology: spindle-shaped cells with an undulatory membrane and pointed flagella at the ends. The organisms are motile, 25-
40 Fm in length.
Host: Reservoir hosts of T. brucei gambiense are: man, domestic pig, cattle, dog, antelope.
Transmission: by bite of infected tsetse flies (Glossina palpalis)
Localisation: blood, lymph nodes, cerebrospinal fluid, brain, muscles.
Stage: Trypomastigotes
Trypanosoma cruzi
Disease: American trypanosomiasis, or Chagas’ disease
Morphology: typical, small (20Fm) trypomastigotes (with flagella) are found in peripheral blood and
amastigotes (intracellular without flagella) – in tissues.
Transmission: 1) by bite of infected bug species of the family Triatomidae; 2) congenital; 3) by blood
transfusion.
Localisation: blood (in acute phase), cells of lymph nodes, spleen, liver, brain, muscles.
Clinical manifestation: fever, oedema of the face, and enlargement of the thyroid gland, lymph
nodes, spleen, and liver, heart alterations.
Infective stage: Trypomastigotes
Hosts: Mammals including Humans
Intermediate Host / Vector: Triatomine bug (Triatoma infestans)
Mastigophora (Flagellates): Leishmania tropica
Subkingdom Protozoa
Phylum Sarcomastigophora
Subphylum Mastigophora
Class Zoomastigophorea
Order Kinetoplastida
Family Trypanosomatidae
Genus Leishmania
Species L. donovani; L. tropica
Disease: Cutaneus leishmaniasis
Clinical Signs: Localized open sore; they manifest as hypopigmented skin lesions (such as macules, papules,
nodules), or facial redness
Morphology: spindle-shaped cells with an undulatory membrane and pointed flagella at the ends. The
organisms are motile, 25-40 Fm in length.
Host: man.
Transmission: by sand fly vector - Phlebotomus sergenti; Phlebotomus papatasi
Localisation: cells of skin
Stages: flagellar Leishmania form in the cells of man, and Leptomonas form in the gut of sandfly
Infective stage: Promastigotes
 LIFE CYCLE OF Leishmania tropica

Amastigotes transform Promastigotes multiply rapidly

into promastigotes in by binary fission in the midgut
fly’s midgut and migrate to the proboscis

Phlebotomus
Sand fly takes meal of Promastigotes injected
or Lutzomyia
blood cells containing into new host during
(Sand flies)
amastigotes next blood meal

Amastigotes and
infected macrophages Human Macrophages
in bloodstream phagocytize parasites

Amastigotes multiply by
Promastigotes transform
binary fission and rupture
into amastigotes
macrophage
LIFE CYCLE OF Giardia lamblia

Cysts ingested with food or

water contaminated with
faecal material

Cysts excyst and

Cysts exit host via trophozoites colonize
faeces into the the small intestine
environment

Reservoir Host (s)

Beavers are often
implicated as potential
reservoirs
CILIATES
Balantidium coli
Subkingdom Protozoa
Phylum Ciliophora
Subphylum Cilliates
Class Litostomatea
Order Vestibuliferida
Family: Balantiididae
Genus Balantidium
Species B. coli
• Balantidium coli: the only ciliate known to be capable of infecting humans; causes balantidiasis
• Protozoa that use cilia in their trophozoite stage
• B. coli infections are generally asymptomatic in healthy adults
• Balantidiasis occurs in those with poor health
• Presence of trophozoites is diagnostic for the disease
• Prevention relies on good personal hygiene and efficient water sanitation
Host: Swine (primary reservoir host), Man
Stages: Cyst (the infective stage) and Trophozoites
Transmission: faecal-oral (alimentary)
Infective stage: cyst
Localisation: intestinal tracts
Clinical Manifestation: Characterized by persistent diarrhea, abdominal pain, and weight loss; dysentery results in severe infections
Laboratory diagnosis: Fresh stools are examined under the microscope. E. histolytica (forma magna and cysts with 4 nuclei) can be demonstrated in the stools.
APICOMPLEXA
Plasmodium falciparum
Subkingdom Protozoa
Phylum Apicomplexa
Subphylum Sporozoa
Class Sporozoasida
Order Eucoccidiorida
Family: Plasmodiidae
Genus Plasmodium
Species P. falciparum
• Plasmodium falciparum: the malaria parasite of man
Disease: Malaria
Host: Intermediate host: Man; Definitive host: Anopheles mosquito
Stages: Sporozoite and Gametocyte
Transmission: by bite of female Anopheles mosquito
Clinical manifestations: fever, anaemia, splenomegaly, hepatomegaly
Infective stage: Infective stage for man: sporozoite; Infective stage for mosquito: gametocyte
Localisation: blood, liver
Life cycle: Exoerythrocytic schizogony (liver phase); Erythrocytic schizogony (blood phase); Sporogony
APICOMPLEXA
Toxoplasma gondii
Subkingdom Protozoa
Phylum Apicomplexa
Subphylum Sporozoa
Class Sporozoasida
Order Eucoccidiorida
Family Sarcocystidae
Genus Toxoplasma
Species T. gondii
Disease: Toxoplasmosis
Host: Intermediate host: Birds, Mammals including Man; Definitive host: Cats and other Felidae
Stages: Pseudocysts, Trophozoites, Cysts, Oocysts
Transmission: ingestion of undercooked infected meat (cysts and pseudocysts); contamination of food or drink with infected cat faeces (oocyts); transplacental
(congenital)
Clinical manifestations: Usually asymptomatic, but may become latent and produce symptoms when reactivated, especially in immunocompromised people. These
symptoms include headache, confusion, poor coordination, seizures, lung problems.
Infective stage: There are 3 infectious stages of T. gondii: the tachyzoites (in groups), the bradyzoites (in tissue cysts), and the sporozoites (in oocysts).
Localisation: brain, eyes, skeletal and cardiac muscles, liver, and lungs
APICOMPLEXA
Cryptosporidum parvum
Subkingdom Protozoa
Phylum Apicomplexa
Subphylum Coccidia
Class Eucoccidiorida
Order Eimeriorina
Family Cryptosporidiidae
Genus Cryptosporidium
Species C. parvum
They are waterborne; acid-fast oocysts; resistant to chlorine
Disease: Watery diarrhoea (cryptosporidiosis)
Host: Cattle
Stages: Oocyst; Sporozoite
Transmission: Faecal-oral
Clinical manifestations: Watery diarrhea, Stomach cramps or pain, Dehydration, Nausea, Vomiting, Fever, Weight loss
Infective stage: Sporozoites
Localisation: Intestinal lining
Oocyst: 4 - 6 Fm; 4 sporozoites; Thick oocyst wall
Sporozoite: No locomotive structure; Reproduction is both asexual and sexual
PLATYHELMINTHES
• Helminth is a general term meaning worm.
• The helminths are invertebrates characterized by elongated, flat or round bodies.
• Platyhelminths or flatworms include flukes (Trematodes) and tapeworms (Cestodes).
Roundworms are nematodes (nemato from the Greek root meaning "thread"). These groups are
subdivided for convenience according to the host organ in which they reside, e.g., lung flukes,
extraintestinal tapeworms, and intestinal roundworms.
• Morphology: The outer covering of helminths is the cuticle or tegument. Prominent external
structures of flukes and tape worms are acetabula (suckers) or bothria (false suckers). Male
nematodes of several species possess accessory sex organs that are external modifications of the
cuticle. Internally, the alimentary, excretory, and reproductive systems can be identified by an
experienced observer. Tapeworms are unique in lacking an alimentary canal. This lack means that
nutrients must be absorbed through the tegument.
• All flukes and tapeworm species that infect humans are hermaphroditic.
CESTODES: Taenia
Characteristics of Cestodes
• Flat, segmented intestinal parasites
• All tapeworms lack digestive systems
• All possess the same general body plan
• They attach through suckers and hook found on the scolex
• Each proglottid has both male and female reproductive organs
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Class Cestoda
Order Cyclophyllidea
Family Taeniidae
Genus Taenia
Species T. saginata, T. solium
• Taenia saginata is the beef tapeworm; Taenia solium is the pork tapeworm
• Adults attach to the intestinal epithelium
• Most individuals shed strobila without having symptoms
• Intestinal blockage can occur if the tapeworm is large
Infective Stage: Adult
Vector / Intermediate Host: Cattle and swine
Transmission: Faecal-Oral
Diseases caused: Taeniasis
Definitive Host: Humans
Localization: Small intestine
Clinical Manifestation: Digestion problems including abdominal pain, loss of appetite, weight loss and upset stomach
Morphology: Adult is divided into three parts: A head: round and small, with four suction disks; A small, slender neck, about an inch long; and
CESTODES: Echinococcus
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Class Cestoda
Order Cyclophyllidea
Family Taeniidae
Genus Echinococcus
Species: Echinococcus granulosus and Echinococcus multilocularis
Echinococcus granulosus (dog tapeworm)
• Responsible for most cases of echinococcosis. Echinococcosis is caused by larval tapeworms. The disease is common in
East Africa (the highest prevalence is seen in Kenya: 10-15%).
• Mode of human infection: Ingestion of eggs by the following ways: i) Ingestion of water or vegetables polluted by infected
dog feces. ii) Handling or caressing infected dogs where the hairs are usually contaminated with eggs.
Infective Stage: Larva
Vector / Intermediate Host: Sheep, cattle, goats and pigs
Transmission: Faecal-Oral
Diseases caused: Cystic echinoccosis (CE) or Hydatid disease
Definitive Host: Human, Dog
Localization: Small intestine
Clinical Manifestation: Cough – with hemoptysis in lung hydatid disease; Hepatomegaly – with abdominal pain and discomfort; Pressure – from
expanding cyst; and Rupture of cyst - severe allergic reaction - anaphylaxis.
TREMATODES:
• Trematodes (Flukes) are flat, leaf-shaped worms
• Lack complete digestive tract
• Attach to host tissues via a ventral sucker to obtain nutrients
• Geographical distribution limited because the intermediate host is limited
• Grouped according to the site in the body they parasitize
• They have a complex life cycle, because they require at least two host

SN Cestode Trematode
1 They are tape-like and They are leaf-like and unsegmented
segmented
2 They have a head with suckers They have heads with suckers but no
and possible hooks hooks
3 Lack digestive system Possess (incomplete) digestive tract
TREMATODES:
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Class Trematoda
Order Strigeidida
Family Schistosomatidae
Genus Schistosoma
Species: Schistosoma mansoni, Schistosoma japonicum and Schistosoma haematobium
Blood flukes: Schistosoma
• Dioecious blood flukes
• Causative agent of schistosomiasis
• Humans are the principal definitive host
Disease: Bilharzia
Infective Stages: Eggs in urine and feces; Miracidia (larvae) in snails; Cercaria (adult) in snails; Penetrate skin;
Schistosomulae in liver; Adults migrate to urinary system
Signs: damage to liver, and urinary bladder
TREMATODES:
Subkingdom Protozoa
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Class Trematoda
Order Digenea
Family Fasciolidae
Genus
Species: Fasciola gigantica, Fasciola hepatica
Big Liverfluke: Fasciola gigantica
Disease: fasciolasis (giant liverfluke infection)
Transmission: By eating waterplants contaminated with metacercariae
Host: Final Host: Plant-eaters (sheep, goat, cow, rodents, man)’ Intermediate Host: Aquatic freshwater snails (Lymnea sp.)
Localisation of Adult Worm: Biliary channels
TREMATODES:
Subkingdom Protozoa
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Class Trematoda
Order
Family Torglotrematidae
Genus Paragonimus
Species: Paragonimus westermani
Common Name: Lungfluke
Disease: Pulmonary distomatosis (oriental lungfluke disease)
Transmission: By eating crustaceans infested with living metacercariae (raw, pickled crab meat)
Host: Final Host: Man, dog, cat, pig, apes; Intermediate Host: 1st – Freshwater snails (Thiaridae sp., Oncomelania sp.), 2nd –
Freshwater crustaceans (lobster, crab)
Localisation of the adult worm: lungs