COURSE TITLE: MYCOLOGY

COURSE CODE: MCB 307

MYCOLOGY
Mycology refers to the study of fungi and the scientist who study fungi are called Mycologist
while the study of fungal toxin is referred to as Mycotoxicology, diseases caused by fungi in
animal are referred to as Mycoses. Fungi (Mycophyta) are nonmotile eukaryotes with rigid cell
walls and a classic cell nucleus. They are member of the domain Eukarya and are sometimes
referred to as True fungi or Eukarya.
In the early days of microbiology, mycologists categorized fungi as plants because they
resemble plants in general appearance (they have cell walls) and because both fungi and plants
lack motility (neither can move under its own power). Today, however, fungi and plants are
considered two distinct groups of organisms because plants use chlorophyll to obtain nutrients
and fungi do not. Fungi are heterotrophic: They absorb nutrients from organic matter and
organic wastes (saprophytes) or tissues of other organisms (parasites). Many fungi are
multicellular e.g molds while others are unicellular e.g yeast. Fungi can be both beneficial and
harmful. Fungi perform and play an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and
have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange in the ecosystem. For example, fungi
play an important role in bioremediations including heavy metal removal, dyes and chemical
pesticides degradations for example, fungi called Mycorrhizae are mutualistic and help roots of
plants absorb water and minerals from the soil. The cellulose and lignin of plants are important
food sources for ants; however, ants are unable to digest them unless fungi first break them
down. Ants are known to cultivate fungi for that purpose. Some fungi are beneficial to humans
as food (mushrooms). They are used in the preparation of food such as bread and beer (yeast).
Fungi are also used to fight off bacterial diseases (antibiotics).
On the other hand, some fungi are pathogenic to humans and animals, such diseases called as
mycoses. On the other hand, some molds, in particular, produce toxic compounds called
mycotoxins that can result in poisoning or death. Various fungi can also cause serious damage
to fruit harvests and other crops including seeds and grains.
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI
1. All are eukaryotic: Possess membrane-bound nuclei (containing chromosomes) and a range
of membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles (e.g. mitochondria, vacuoles, endoplasmic
reticulum).
2. Most of fungi are filamentous: Composed of individual microscopic filaments called hyphae,
which exhibit apical growth and which branches to form a network of hyphae called mycelium.
3. They are either unicellular or multicellular

4. The cell wall of fungi are made up of chitin, glucan and mannans

5. Many of fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually: Production of spores in fungi formed as
a result of sexual and asexual reproduction in most cases.
6. Fungal nuclei are typically haploid and hyphal compartments are often multinucleate:
Although diploid nuclei are present in Oomycota and in some yeasts.
8. Nutrition categories of fungi are chemoheterotrophic (chemo-organotrophic): They utilize
organic sources of carbon in their environment as carbon source and the energy from
biochemical reactions of organic compounds oxidation, they require for growth and energy
9. They are spore bearing organisms

10. They are capable of producing extracellular enzymes

11. May be free-living or may form intimate relationships with other organisms: i.e. may be
free-living, parasitic or mutualistic (symbiotic).
Fungi are therefore an important group of microorganisms that have significant impact on the
activities of other living things including plants and animals.
FUNGI STRUCTURE

Fungi range in form and size from unicellular yeasts to large mushrooms and puffballs. Yeasts
are unicellular group of fungi which do not have flagella and reproduce asexually by budding or
transverse fission, or sexually by spore formation. Multicellular forms such as molds have long,
branched, threadlike filaments called hyphae, which aggregate together to form a tangled
mycelium. The mycelium of fungi involved in nutrient uptake from substrate which is found
below the ground level is termed Substrate Mycelium while the one found above the ground
level mostly involve in reproduction and growth is termed Aerial Mycelium. The fungal hyphae
contain all organs including nuclei, mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi and membrane-bound
vesicles within a plasma membrane bound cytoplasm. Some fungal hyphae have cross walls or
septa (sing: septum) separating cells, which may nevertheless be joined by one or more pores
thus permitting cytoplasmic streaming (a form of internal transport), such hyphae are said to be
septate; others have no cross walls and are therefore coenocytic (i.e. many nuclei within a
single plasma membrane without cross walls).
Many fungi are dimorphic, that is, they exist in two distinct forms. Some fungi that cause
human infections can change from the yeast form in the human to a mycelial form in the
environment in response to changes in nutrients, and environmental factors such as CO 2
concentration and temperature. This change in body form is known as the YM shift; in fungi
associated with plants, the shift often occurs the other way round, i.e. the mycelial form exists
in the plant and the yeast form in the environment.
One of the features that caused taxonomists to finally remove fungi from the plant kingdom
was the distinctive chemical nature of the fungal cell wall. Whereas plant and algal cells have
walls composed of cellulose, the cell wall of fungi is made up principally of chitin, a strong but
flexible polysaccharide that is also found in the exoskeleton of insects. It is a polymer whose
repeating subunit is N-acetylglucosamine, a compound encountered when discussing
peptidoglycan structure. Other composed polysaccharides in fungi cell wall include mannans
and glucans. Similarly, fungi cell membrane is rich in sterol type (ergosterol) not found in other
biological membrane.
 FUNGI LIFECYCLE

There are basically 2 methods of reproduction exhibited within the fungi family for the
continuity of life, these include

1. Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction

Note perfect fungi reproduces both sexually and asexually while imperfect fungi reproduce
asexually

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Fungi reproduce asexually by fragmentation, budding, or producing spores.

 Fragmentation: this involves breakage of the hyphae which will eventually germinate to
produce young hyphae. Mycelial fragmentation occurs when a fungal mycelium
separates into pieces with each component growing into a separate mycelium.

 Budding: this involves the formation of a small outgrowths referred to as Bud by the
parent cell after which the nucleus of the parent cell divides mitotically and one
migrates to the new forming daughter cells. Invariably the daughter cell is cut off from
 the mother cell. Often the younger cells stay attached to the parent cell. This method of
reproduction is typically exhibited by Yeast (Saccharomyces)

 Spore Formation: The most common mode of asexual reproduction is through the
formation of asexual spores, which are produced by one parent only (through mitosis)
and are genetically identical to that parent. Spores allow fungi to expand their
distribution and colonize new environments. They may be released from the parent
thallus, either outside or within a special reproductive sac called a sporangium.

There are many types of asexual spores, each with its own characteristics

 Sporangiospore: i) spores are developed within a sac called sporangium at a hyphal tip,
this structure is found mainly in Phycomycetes ii) the fertile hyphae which bears the
sporangiospore is called Sporangiophore iii) sporangium contains large numbers of
haploid spores which are released by rupture of sporangial wall
 Chlamydospore: i) it is a type of resting of survival spore ii) the cells are surrounded by a
thick often pigmented wall before separation iii) it contains dense cytoplasm and
nutrient storage compounds iv) it is usually developed during stress that is unfavourable
for normal somatic growth
 Conidiospores: i) the spores are single celled, bicelled or multicelled produced at the tips
or sides of the aerial hyphal structure called conidiophore ii) they are different from
 sporangiospore as these are not produced inside sporangium or any sac-like structure
iii) conidia are born singly or in chain
 Blastospores: i. Spores are produced from a vegetative mother cell by budding of the
hypha or yeast cell. ii) the spores may remain attached and bud further blastospores
forming a branched chain of spores
 Athroconidia or Arthrospores: i) spores are formed by septation and fragmentation of
existing hyphae i.e by the separation of hyphae through splitting of the cell wall or
septum to form cells that behave as spores ii) elements of the hyphae become
converted into conidia with each fragment rounding off and liberate in succession

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction introduces genetic variation into a population of fungi. In fungi, sexual
reproduction often occurs in response to adverse environmental conditions. Two mating types
are produced. When both mating types are present in the same mycelium, it is called
homothallic, or self-fertile. Heterothallic mycelia require two different, but compatible, mycelia
to reproduce sexually.
Although there are many variations in fungal sexual reproduction, all include the following
three stages. First, during plasmogamy which involves the fusion of two cytoplasm of haploid
gamete, two haploid cells fuse leading to a dikaryotic stage where two haploid nuclei coexist in
a single cell. During plasmogamy, there are various methods by which compatible nuclei are
brought together these include

 Gametic copulation: Fusion of two naked gametes in which one or both of them are
motile

 Gamete-gametangial copulation: Male and female gametangia (Sex organ) comes into
contact but do not fuse. A fertilization tube formed from where male gametangium
enters the female gametangium and male gamete passes through this tube

 Gametangial copulation: Two gametangia or their protoplast fuse and give rise to
zygospore

 Somatic copulation: Also known as somatogamy. In this process fusion of somatic cell
occurs. This sexual fusion of undifferentiated vegetative cell results in dikaryotic hyphae,
so the process is also called dikarotization

 Spermatization: It is a union of special male structure called spertatium with a female

receptive structure. Spermatium empties its content into receptive hyphae during
plasmogamy

During karyogamy which is actually the fusion of two haploid nuclei (nuclear marriage), the
haploid nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote nucleus. During karyogamy nuclear envelopes of
the two haploid nuclei are fused in three steps. First, the outer membranes of the two nuclei
are fused. Then, the two inner membranes are fused and finally the fusion of the spindle poles
bodies occurs. After undergoing the karyogamy, the dikaryotic cell becomes diploid and the
resultant diploid cells are known as zygotes or zygospores. The zygote is the only diploid phase
found in fungi lifecycle. Finally, meiosis of the diploid nuclei occurs. During meiosis duplication
of chromosomes occurs along with the recombination of genetic materials and division of the
cell ultimately produce four daughter haploid cells which are called spores. In higher fungi like
Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes, karyogamy stage is delayed and dikaryotic cells are
maintained for several generations. The various sexual spores produced include the zoospore,
ascospore, basidiospore and oospore.

1.Ascospores: i) they are usually single celled produced in a sac called ascus and usually there
are 4-8 ascospores in an ascus but the number varies from species to species ii) they are usually
arranged in a linear order, in some case ascospores are long, narrow and arranged in parallel
order

2. Basidiospores: i) they are reproductive spores produced basidiomycetes ii) the single celled
spores are born in a club shaped structure called basidium iii) they majorly dispersed via the air

3. Zygospores: i) they are thick wall spores formed when two sexually compatible hyphae or
gametangia of certain fungi fuse together

4. Oospores: i) they are formed within special female structure called Oogonium ii) fertilization
of egg by male gamete in female sex organ give rise to oospores iii) there are one or more
oospores in each oogonium
 FUNGAL SPORULATION
Many (not all) fungi are capable of reproducing both sexually and asexually spores. Many fungi
are capable of producing more than one type of spore - each has its own role to play in the life
cycle of the fungus. The environment plays an important role in determining whether a fungus
forms sexual or asexual spores. Spores commonly formed as a fungus depletes its energy
sources. A variety of environmental triggers may be involved in determining which type of
spores formed. Some fungi are unable to form spores under conditions of high nutrients and
therefore those fungi continue to grow in their vegetative forms in abundant nutrient
conditions. For example, many wood rotting fungi require inoculation and growth on wood
blocks before basidiomes are formed in the laboratory. For others, the exhaustion of a key
nutrient induces sporulation. Low carbon/nitrogen ratios induce formation of hyphal
arthrospores, in some fungi, while depletion of carbon regardless of the nitrogen status induces
formation of conidia (e.g. Fusarium) in others. Temperature influences formation of sporocarps.
Sporulation takes place in a narrower range of temperatures than vegetative growth. Similarly,
sporulation appears to require aerobic conditions in most cases. In some fungi, light initiates
the sexual structures. In Pleospora, a fungus of plant surfaces, UV induces ascocarps formation.
Light needed for basidiocarp initiation in Schizophyllum, a wood degrading fungus. However,
light and night needed to complete the formation of sporangia of Pilobolus, a dung fungus.
PURPOSE OF SPORULATION
1. Dispersal: Spores ensure that a small portion of the fungus’ protoplasm, widely and
efficiently dispersed away from the site currently occupied by the organism, e.g. zoospores,
sporangiospores, conidia.
2. Preservation: Certain types of spore preserve the potential for growth at the same site
because they provide a means by which the fungus can survive unfavourable environmental
conditions, e.g. oospores, zygospores, chlamydospores.
3. Genetic variation: Sexual sporulation provides the potential for genetic variation.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGAL SPORES
1. Spores represent microscopic dispersal or survival propagules produced by most species of
fungi.
2. Fungal spores vary in size, shape and colour
3. Fungal spores may be unicellular or multicellular for example, conidia produced by Alternaria
species are multicellular.
4. Some spores possess a textured or ornamented surface. For example, uredospores of
Melampsora epita (causal pathogen of willow rust).
5. The protoplasm of most (not all) spores is surrounded by a rigid wall, which is often thicker
and more multilayered than that of somatic cells or hyphae, may be impregnated with
pigments (e.g. melanins) and lipids.
6. Spores often contain substantial amounts of nutrient reserves, which may take the form of
lipids, trehalose and glycogen.
7. They possess relatively low water content.
8. While it dormant they exhibit a low rate of metabolic activity.
9. They vary in the primary functions they serve, which may include example-Dispersal to a
fresh site or host, survival at the same site and increasing genetic variation.
10. They also vary in the methods by which they formed, released and dispersed

FUNGI NUTRITION

Fungi absorb food from their surroundings. Depending on what type of fungi they are, their
surroundings could be soil, wood or other types of living or dead plant or animal material. Many
fungi grow stringy strands called hyphae. These strands absorb nutrients and water from their
surroundings, giving energy to the fungi for further growth and reproduction. This mat of fungal
hyphae called as fungal mycelium. All fungi are chemoheterotrophic (chemo organotrophic)-
synthesizing the organic compounds they need for growth and energy from pre-existing organic
sources in their environment, using the energy from chemical reactions. Since the protoplasm
are protected by a rigid wall, fungi must obtain their nutrients by the process of absorption.
There are three main types of fungal nutrition namely:
1. Saprophytic nutrition
2. Parasitic nutrition
3. Symbiotic nutrition
1. Saprophytic nutrition: Many fungi feed in a saprophytic way. This means that they feed on
the dead materials of plants or animals, or on the waste materials (such as dung) of other living
things. The saprophytic fungi are either obligates or facultative. They are often found in
woodlands, where the floors are covered with massive amounts of dead plant material such as
fallen leaves, twigs and logs. Many mushrooms feed in this way.
2. Parasitic nutrition: These fungi do not wait until a plant or animal is dead before feeding on
it. Instead, parasitic fungi feed on other organisms while they are still alive. These group of
fungi are diseases causing organisms. As you can imagine, many of these parasites cause
serious damage to trees and other plants. The parasitic fungi, which grow on and inside humans
and other animals, cause problems such as athlete’s foot and ringworm. The parasitic fungi are
either obligates or facultative.
3. Symbiotic nutrition: Although these fungi do live on or inside other living things, they do not
cause damage. The fungi, and the organism on which it lives, both receive benefits from living
with each other. Many fungi live in such harmonious “give and take” relationships with trees,
and other plants including many orchids. The fungi grow underground, and their threadlike
“hyphae” grow into a thick mat known as a mycelium. This mycelium absorbs nutrients and
water from the soil and passes what it does not need through into the roots of the tree. Such
relationships between fungi and trees, are known as mycorrhiza. Another intimate relationship
that works very well, is that found when we look at Lichen. This grows as a flat, green or yellow
growth on the surface of rocks and trees. Lichen is a fungus and an alga growing together,
helping each other to survive and grow.