AIML,AIDS,

Dept. :
St. Peter’s Engineering College (Autonomous) CSG
Dullapally (P), Medchal, Hyderabad – 500100.
Academic Year
QUESTION BANK WITH ANSWERS
2024-25

Subject Code : AS22-74PE11 Subject : IMAGE PROCESSING

Class/Sec on : B. Tech. Year : III Semester : I

UNIT – I
1 marks
1) What is Digital Image Processing?
The field of digital image processing refers to processing digital images by means of a
digital computer.
2) Define image.
An image may be defined as a two-dimensional function, f(x, y), where x and y are
spatial (plane) coordinates, and the amplitude of f at any pair of coordinates (x, y) is
called the intensity or gray level of the image at that point.
3) Define Pixel.
Digital image is composed of a finite number of elements, each of which has a particular
location and value. These elements are referred to as picture elements, image elements,
pels, and pixels.
4) What do you understand by the term “resolution”.
The number of pixels in the image, usually measured as width x height (e.g., 1920x1080).
5) What is bit depth?
The number of bits used to represent the color of a single pixel. Common bit depths are 8-
bit, 16-bit, 24-bit, etc.

3 marks
1) Define Sampling and Quantization.
To create a digital image, we need to convert the continuous sensed data into digital from.
This involves two processes – sampling and quantization. Digitalizing the coordinate
values is called sampling. Digitalizing the amplitude values is called quantization.
2) For a k-bit image, give the gray scale when k=16.
L = 2k
 Since k = 16, L = 216 , So L = 65,536
Gray scale = [0 , L-1] = [0, 65535]
3) Draw the block diagram of components of image processing system.

4) Discuss 4-neighbours of a pixel.

A pixel p at coordinates (x,y) has four horizontal and vertical neighbours.
(x-1, y)
(x, y-1) p(x,y) (x, y+1)
(x+1, y)

This set of pixels, called the 4-neighbors of p, is denoted by N 4(p).

5) List the properties of 2D DFT method.
 Linearity
 Translation
 Scaling
 Rotation
 Convolution
 Correlation
 Parseval’s Theorem
 Symmetry
5 marks

1) Explain Digital Image processing through Scanner.

DIGITAL IMAGE THROUGH SCANNER

Converting an analog image to a digital image involves several steps that transform the
continuous signal of an analog image into a discrete digital format.

Fig. Block diagram of Image Scanning Process

Image Acquisition:
 Scanner Sensor: The analog image is captured using a sensor, typically a Charge-
Coupled Device (CCD) or Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS)
sensor. These sensors convert light into electrical signals.
Preprocessing:
 Noise Reduction: Before converting the analog signals to digital, preprocessing steps
like noise reduction and filtering may be applied to improve image quality.
Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC):
 Sampling: The continuous electrical signal from the sensor is sampled at regular
intervals. Each sample represents the intensity of the light at that point.
 Quantization: The sampled values are then quantized into discrete levels, which
means assigning a finite number of levels to the sampled values.
 Binary Encoding: The quantized values are then encoded into binary form, resulting
in a digital representation of the image.
Image Storage and Processing:

 Storage: The digital image data is stored in memory or on a storage device.

 Processing: The stored image can be processed for various applications, such as
enhancement, compression, and analysis.
Digital Image Output:
The final digital image can be displayed on screens, printed, or used in further digital
processing applications.

2) How do you represent a gray scale image in binary? Explain.

Representing Digital Images: BINARY IMAGE REPRESENTATION
The result of sampling and quantization is matrix of real numbers. Assume that an image
f(x,y) is sampled so that the resulting digital image has M rows and N Columns. The values
of the coordinates (x,y) now become discrete quantities thus the value of the coordinates at
origin become (x,y) =(0,0) The next Coordinates value along the first signify the image along
the first row. It does not mean that these are the actual values of physical coordinates when
the image was sampled.
Thus the right side of the matrix represents a digital element, pixel or pel. The matrix can be
represented in the following form as well.

Clearly, aij = f(x=i,y=j)=f(i,j).

Due to processing storage and hardware consideration, the number gray levels typically is an
integer power of 2.
L=2k
Then, the number, b, of bites required to store a digital image is b=M *N* k
When M=N, the equation become b=N 2*k
When an image can have 2k gray levels, it is referred to as “k- bit”. An image with 256
possible gray levels is called an “8- bit image” (256=28).
3) Determine 4-adjacency, 8-adjacency and m-adjacency for the following binary image
for V = {1}.

Solution:
4 – adjacency

Two pixels p and q with value from V are 4 –adjacent if q is in the set N4(p)

8– adjacency

Two pixels p and q with value from V are 8 –adjacent if q is in the set N8(p)

m- adjacency

Two pixels p and q with value from V are m – adjacent if

(i) q is in N4(p)
OR
(ii) q is in ND(p) and the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) has no pixel whose values are
from V.
4) Discuss Discrete Cosine Transform.
DCT using Kernel matrix
 5) Write short notes on KLT and SVD 2D Transformation.

KL Transform:

 KL Transform is the abbreviated form for Karhunnen-Loeve

Transform.
 It is also called as hotelling transform or Eigen vector transform.
 It is the statistical based method used for image compression.

Steps to perform KL Transform:

i) Find X

ii) Find Mean (µx)

iii) Find Covariance Matrix Cx

Cx = E {[X - µx] [X - µx]T }

iv) Find Eigen Values using | Cx – λI | = 0
v) Find Eigen vectors e0, e1,…. using [ Cx – λI] [ X] = 0
vi) Find Transformation matrix using the Eigen Vectors

vii) Output Y = A [X - µx]

SVD Transform:

The Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) is a powerful technique in linear

algebra that can be used for various applications, including image compression
and noise reduction. Here's how SVD works in the context of images:

For a given matrix A, SVD decomposes it into three matrices: A=UΣVT

where:

 U is an m×m orthogonal matrix,

 Σ is an m×n diagonal matrix with non-negative real numbers on the

diagonal (singular values),

 VT is the transpose of an n×n orthogonal matrix V.

Steps to perform SVD:

i) Computation of matrix V using Eigen values and Eigen vectors of A TA

ii) Computation of matrix Σ using Σ1= σ1 0 where σ = √Eigen Value
0 σ2
iii) Computation of matrix U using Eigen values and Eigen vectors of AA T
10 marks:

1) Explain the relationship between pixels in detail.

NEIGHBORS OF A PIXEL

A pixel p at coordinates (x,y) has four horizontal and vertical neighbors whose
coordinates are given by: (x+1,y), (x-1, y), (x, y+1), (x,y-1)
(x-1, y)
(x, y-1) p(x,y) (x, y+1)
(x+1, y)
This set of pixels, called the 4-neighbors or p, is denoted by N 4(p). Each pixel is
one unit distance from (x,y) and some of the neighbors of p lie outside the digital
image if (x,y) is on the border of the image.

The four diagonal neighbors of p have coordinates and are denoted by N D (p).
(x-1, y-1) (x-1, y+1)
p(x,y)
(x+1, y-1) (x+1, y+1)
These points, together with the 4-neighbors, are called the 8-neighbors of p,
denoted by N8 (p).
(x-1, y-1) (x-1, y) (x-1, y+1)
(x, y-1) p(x,y) (x, y+1)
(x+1, y-1) (x+1, y) (x+1, y+1)

ADJACENCY

Let V be the set of gray –level values used to define adjacency, in a binary image,
V={1}. In a gray-scale image, the idea is the same, but V typically contains more
elements, for example, V = {180, 181, 182… 200}. If the possible intensity values
0 – 255, V set can be any subset of these 256 values. if we are reference to
adjacency of pixel with value.

Three types of adjacency

4- Adjacency – two pixel P and Q with value from V are 4 –adjacency if A is in

the set N4(P)

8- Adjacency – two pixel P and Q with value from V are 8 –adjacency if A is in

the set N8(P)

M-adjacency –two pixel P and Q with value from V are m – adjacency if (i) Q is
in N4(p) or (ii) Q is in ND(q) and the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) has no pixel whose values
are from V.

Mixed adjacency is a modification of 8-adjacency. It is introduced to eliminate the

ambiguities that often arise when 8-adjacency issued.

(a) Arrangement of pixels; (b) pixels that are 8-adjacent (shown

dashed) to the center pixel; (c) m-adjacency.

A Digital Path:

A digital path (or curve) from pixel p with coordinate (x,y) to pixel q with
coordinate (s,t) is a sequence of distinct pixels with coordinates (x0,y0), (x1,y1),
…, (xn, yn) where (x0,y0) = (x,y) and (xn, yn) = (s,t) and pixels (xi, yi) and (xi-1,
yi-1) are adjacent for 1 ≤ i ≤n

n is the length of the path

If (x0,y0) = (xn, yn), the path is closed.

Connectivity:

Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image, two pixels p and q are said to be
connected in S if there exists a path between them consisting entirely of pixels in
S.

For any pixel p in S, the set of pixels that are connected to it in S is called a
connected component of S. If it only has one connected component, then set S is
called a connected set.

Region and Boundary:

REGION: Let R be a subset of pixels in an image, we call R a region of the

image if R is a connected set.

BOUNDARY: The boundary (also called border or contour) of a region R is the

set of pixels in the region that have one or more neighbors that are not in R.

If R happens to be an entire image, then its boundary is defined as the set of pixels
in the first and last rows and columns in the image. This extra definition is
required because an image has no neighbors beyond its borders. Normally, when
we refer to a region, we are referring to subset of an image, and any pixels in the
boundary of the region that happen to coincide with the border of the image are
included implicitly as part of the region boundary.

DISTANCE MEASURES:

For pixel p, q and z with coordinate (x.y),(s,t) and (v,w) respectively D is a

distance function or metric if

D [p.q] ≥ O {D[p.q] = O iff p=q}

D [p.q] = D [p.q] and

D [p.q] ≥ O {D[p.q]+D(q,z)

The Euclidean Distance between p and q is defined as:

Pixels having a distance less than or equal to some value r from (x,y) are the
points contained in a disk of radius ‘ r ‘centered at (x,y)

The D4 distance (also called city-block distance) between p and q is defined as:

Pixels having a D4 distance from (x,y), less than or equal to some value r form a
Diamond centered at (x,y)
2) Explain Imaging geometry used in Digital Image Processing.
 3) Explain Gray Level to Binary Image Conversion in detail.

CONCEPT OF GRAY LEVELS

The term gray level is used often to refer to the intensity of monochrome images.
Gray levels in image processing refer to the different shades of gray that a pixel in a grayscale
image can represent. A grayscale image is composed of pixels, each of which holds a value
corresponding to a specific shade of gray, ranging from black to white.
Gray Level Range:
 The range of gray levels depends on the bit depth of the image.
 For an 8-bit image, there are 256 possible gray levels, ranging from 0 (black) to 255
(white).
Bit Depth:
 Bit depth determines the number of gray levels.
 An 8-bit image has 2^8 = 256 levels.
 A 16-bit image has 2^16 = 65,536 levels.

Pixel Value:

 Each pixel in a grayscale image has an intensity value corresponding to its gray level.
 Lower values represent darker shades, while higher values represent lighter shades.
Simple Image formation model
In image processing, images are treated as functions represented by f(x, y). This function
gives a positive value at each coordinate (x, y). For grayscale images, these values correspond
to different shades of gray.
When an image is created from a physical process, its values are related to the energy emitted
by a source (like light). Hence, f(x, y) must be positive and finite: 0 < f(x, y) < ∞

The function f(x, y) can be split into two parts:

1. Illumination i(x, y): the light falling on the scene.

2. Reflectance r(x, y): the light reflected by objects in the scene.

These parts combine as: f(x, y) = i(x, y) r(x, y) where 0 < i(x, y) < ∞ and 0 < r(x, y) < 1

Reflectance r(x, y) ranges from 0 (total absorption) to 1 (total reflection). Illumination i(x, y)
depends on the light source, and reflectance r(x, y) depends on the object.

This model also applies to images formed by light passing through a medium (e.g., X-rays),
using transmissivity instead of reflectivity.

The intensity at any point (x0,y0) in a grayscale image is called the gray level l.

l = f(x0, y0)

This gray level falls within:

Lmin=imin.rmin

Lmax=imax.rmax

Lmin < l < Lmax

In practical terms, Lmin might be around 10 and Lmax around 1,000 for typical indoor values
without extra lighting.

Common practice is to scale the gray level range to [0, L-1], where 0 is black and L− is
white, with all intermediate values being shades of gray.

SAMPLING AND QUANTIZATION

To create a digital image, we need to convert the continuous sensed data into digital from.
This involves two processes – sampling and quantization. An image may be continuous with
respect to the x and y coordinates and also in amplitude. To convert it into digital form we
have to sample the function in both coordinates and in amplitudes.
Digitalizing the coordinate values is called sampling. Digitalizing the amplitude values is
called quantization.
Fig: Generating a digital image.(a)Continuous image.(b)A scan line from A to Bin the
continuous image, used to illustrate the concepts of sampling and quantization.(c)Sampling
and quantization.(d)Digital scan line
The basic idea behind sampling and quantization is illustrated in above figure. Figure (a)
shows a continuous image, f(x,y),that we want to convert to digital form. An image may be
continuous with respect to the x-and y-coordinates, and also in amplitude. To convert it to
digital form, we have to sample the function in both coordinates and in amplitude. Digitizing
the coordinate values is called sampling. Digitizing the amplitude values is called
quantization. The one-dimensional function shown in Fig.2.16(b) is a plot of amplitude (gray
level) values of the continuous image along the line segment AB in Fig.(a).The random
variations are due to image noise. To sample this function, we take equally spaced samples
along line AB, as shown in Fig(c).The location of each sample is given by a vertical tick
mark in the bottom part of the figure. The samples are shown as small white squares
superimposed on the function. The set of these discrete locations gives the sampled function.
However, the values of the samples still span (vertically) a continuous range of gray-level
values. In order to form a digital function, the gray-level values also must be con verted
(quantized) into discrete quantities. The right side of Fig.(c) shows the gray-level scale
divided into eight discrete levels, ranging from black to white. The vertical tick marks
indicate the specific value assigned to each of the eight gray levels. The continuous gray
levels are quantized simply by assigning one of the eight discrete gray levels to each sample.
The assignment is made depending on the vertical proximity of a sample to a vertical tick
mark. The digital samples resulting from both sampling and quantization are shown in
Fig.(d).Starting at the top of the image and carrying out this procedure line by line produces a
two-dimensional digital image. Sampling in the manner just described assumes that we have
a continuous image in both coordinate directions as well as in amplitude.In practice, the
method of sampling is determined by the sensor arrangement used to generate the image.
When an image is generated by a single sensing element combined with mechanical motion,
the output of the sensor is quantized in the manner described above. However, sampling is
accomplished by selecting the number of individual mechanical increments at which we
activate the sen sor to collect data. Mechanical motion can be made very exact so, in
principle, there is almost no limit as to how fine we can sample an image. However, practical
limits are established by imperfections in the optics used to focus on the sampling limits
established by the number of sensors in the other. Quantization of the sensor outputs
completes the process of generating a digital image. When a sensing array is used for image
acquisition, there is no motion and the number of sensors in the array establishes the limits of
sampling in both directions.
Representing Digital Images: BINARY IMAGE REPRESENTATION
The result of sampling and quantization is matrix of real numbers. Assume that an image
f(x,y) is sampled so that the resulting digital image has M rows and N Columns. The values
of the coordinates (x,y) now become discrete quantities thus the value of the coordinates at
origin 12 become (x,y) =(0,0) The next Coordinates value along the first signify the image
along the first row. It does not mean that these are the actual values of physical coordinates
when the image was sampled.
Thus the right side of the matrix represents a digital element, pixel or pel. The matrix can be
represented in the following form as well.

Clearly, aij=f(x=i,y=j)=f(i,j).
Due to processing storage and hardware consideration, the number gray levels typically is an
integer power of 2.
L=2k
Then, the number, b, of bites required to store a digital image is b=M *N* k
When M=N, the equation become b=N2*k
When an image can have 2k gray levels, it is referred to as “k- bit”.
An image with 256 possible gray levels is called an “8- bit image” (256=28).
 UNIT – II

1 marks

1) What are spatial domain methods?

the term spatial domain refers to the aggregate of pixels composing an image.
Spatial domain methods are procedures that operate directly on these pixels.
Spatial domain processes will be denoted by the expression

g(x, y) = T[f(x, y)]

where f(x, y) is the input image, g(x, y) is the processed image, and T is an
operator on f,defined over some neighborhood of (x, y).

2) What are different names of a filter?

Masks, Kernels, Templates or Windows.

3) What are convolution masks?

Linear spatial filtering often is referred to as “convolving a mask with an image.”

Similarly, filter masks are sometimes called convolution masks. The term con
volution kernel also is in common use.

4) What is the purpose of smoothing filter?

Smoothing filters are used for blurring and for noise reduction.

5) What is the principal objective of sharpening?

The principal objective of sharpening is to highlight fine detail in an image or to

enhance detail that has been blurred, either in error or as a natural effect of a
particular method of image acquisition.

2 marks

1) What do you understand by the term “point processing”?

Gray-level transformations based enhancement at any point in an image depends

only on the gray level at that point, techniques in this category often are referred
to as point processing.

2) Define histogram equalization.

A processed (output) image is obtained by mapping each pixel with level r k in the
input image into a corresponding pixel with level sk in the output image via
. As indicated earlier, a plot of pr(rk) versus rk is called a histogram. The
transformation (mapping) given in above equation is called histogram equalization
or histogram linearization.

3) What is histogram matching?

It is useful sometimes to be able to specify the shape of the histogram that we

wish the processed image to have. The method used to generate a processed image
that has a specified histogram is called histogram matching or histogram
specification.

4) What is linear Spatial filtering?

For linear spatial filtering, the response is given by a sum of products of the filter
coefficients and the corresponding image pixels in the area spanned by the filter
mask.

5) What are averaging filters?

The output (response) of a smoothing, linear spatial filter is simply the average of
the pixels contained in the neighborhood of the filter mask. These filters
sometimes are called averaging filters.

5 marks:

1) Discuss the piecewise linear transformation functions.

Piecewise linear transformation functions

The principal advantage of piecewise linear functions over the types of functions
is that the form of piecewise functions can be arbitrarily complex. The principal
disadvantage of piece wise functions is that their specification requires
considerably more user input.

Contrast stretching

One of the simplest piecewise linear functions is a contrast-stretching trans

formation. Low-contrast images can result from poor illumination, lack of
dynamic range in the imaging sensor, or even wrong setting of a lens aperture
during image acquisition. The idea behind contrast stretching is to increase the
dynamic range of the gray levels in the image being processed.

Fig: Contrast stretching. (a) Form of transformation function. (b) A low-contrast

stretching. (c) Result of high contrast stretching. (d) Result of thresholding (original
image courtesy of Dr.Roger Heady, Research School of Biological Sciences,
Australian National University Canberra Australia.

The locations of points (r1,s1) and (r2,s2) control the shape of the transformation
function. If r1=s1 and r2=s2,the transformation is a linear function that pro duces
no changes in gray levels.If r1=r2,s1=0 and s2=L-1,the transformation becomes a
thresholding function that creates a binary image. Intermediate values of Ar1,s1B
and Ar2,s2B produce various degrees of spread in the gray levels of the output
image, thus affecting its contrast. In general, r1 r2 and s1 s2isassumed so that the
function is single valued and monotonically increasing. This condition preserves
the order of gray levels, thus preventing the creation of intensity artifacts in the
processed image.
Figure x(b) shows an 8-bit image with low contrast. Fig. x(c) shows the result of
contrast stretching, obtained by setting (r1, s1 )=(rmin, 0) and (r2, s2)=(rmax,L-1) where
rmin and rmax denote the minimum and maximum gray levels in the image,
respectively.Thus, the transformation function stretched the levels linearly from their
original range to the full range [0, L-1]. Finally, Fig. x(d) shows the result of using the
thresholding function defined previously, with r1=r2=m, the mean gray level in the
image. The original image on which these results are based is a scanning electron
microscope image of pollen, magnified approximately 700 times.

Gray-level slicing

Highlighting a specific range of gray levels in an image often is desired.Appli

cations include enhancing features such as masses of water in satellite imagery
and enhancing flaws in X-ray images.There are several ways of doing level slic
ing, but most of them are variations of two basic themes.One approach is to dis
play a high value for all gray levels in the range of interest and a low value for all
other gray levels.This transformation, produces a binary image.The second
approach,based on the transformation, brightens the desired range of gray levels
but preserves the background and gray-level tonalities in the image.

Bit-plane slicing

Instead of highlighting gray-level ranges, highlighting the contribution made to

total image appearance by specific bits might be desired. Suppose that each pixel
in an image is represented by 8 bits. Imagine that the image is composed of eight
1-bit planes,ranging from bit-plane 0 for the least significant bit to bit plane 7 for
the most significant bit. In terms of 8-bit bytes, plane 0 contains all the lowest
order bits in the bytes comprising the pixels in the image and plane 7 contains all
the high-order bits. Note that the higher-order bits (especially the top four) contain
the majority of the visually sig nificant data.The other bit planes contribute to
more subtle details in the image. Separating a digital image into its bit planes is
useful for analyzing the relative importance played by each bit of the image,a
process that aids in determining the adequacy of the number of bits used to
quantize each pixel.

Fig: Bit plane representation of an 8-bit image

2) Briefly explain Histogram Equalization.
 3) What is the principal objective of sharpening spatial filters?
The principal objective of sharpening is to highlight fine detail in an image or to enhance detail
that has been blurred, either in error or as a natural effect of a particular method of image
acquisition. Uses of image sharpening vary and include applications ranging from electronic
printing and medical imaging to industrial inspection and autonomous guidance in military
systems.
Fundamentally, the strength of the response of a derivative operator is proportional to the
degree of discontinuity of the image at the point at which the operator is applied. Thus, image
differentiation enhances edges and other discontinuities (such as noise) and deemphasizes areas
with slowly varying gray-level values.
Comparing the response between first- and second-order derivatives, we arrive at the following
conclusions.
(1) First-order derivatives generally produce thicker edges in an image.
(2) Second-order derivatives have a stronger response to fine detail, such as thin lines and
isolated points.
(3) First order derivatives generally have a stronger response to a gray-level step.
(4) Second-order derivatives produce a double response at step changes in gray level.
We also note of second-order derivatives that,for similar changes in gray-level values in an
image, their response is stronger to a line than to a step, and to a point than to a line. In most
applications, the second derivative is better suited than the first derivative for image
enhancement because of the ability of the former to enhance fine detail. For this, and for reasons
of simpler implementation and extensions, we will focus attention initially on uses of the
second derivative for enhancement. Although the principle of use of first derivatives in image
processing is for edge extraction, they do have important uses in image enhancement.
4) Discuss power-law transformations.
5) Discuss the basics of spatial filtering.
10 marks
1) Give an overview of image enhancement in spatial domain.
Image enhancement in the spatial domain involves directly manipulating the pixels of an image
to improve its visual quality. This process aims to highlight certain features or details, making
the image more suitable for specific applications or for human interpretation. The spatial
domain techniques operate directly on the pixel values of the image and are usually simple and
computationally efficient. Here's an overview of some common spatial domain methods:
1. Point Processing Techniques
These techniques process each pixel individually and independently of other pixels.
 Image Negatives: This method inverts the pixel values of an image, converting each
pixel value I(x,y) to 255−I(x,y) for an 8-bit grayscale image. This is useful for
enhancing white or gray details embedded in a dark background.
 Log Transformations: This technique enhances the details in the darker regions of an
image by applying the transformation S=clog(1+r), where S is the output pixel value, r
is the input pixel value, and c is a constant. It compresses the dynamic range of the
image.
 Power-Law Transformations (Gamma Correction): This involves the transformation
S=crγ ,, where γ is the gamma value. It is used to correct the brightness of an image.
 Histogram Equalization: This technique improves the contrast of an image by spreading
out the most frequent intensity values. It results in an image with a more uniform
histogram, enhancing the overall contrast.
2. Neighborhood Processing Techniques
These techniques process a group of pixels surrounding a target pixel. The output pixel value
is based on the input values of this neighborhood.
 Smoothing Filters (Blurring): These filters average the pixel values in a neighborhood,
reducing noise and details. Examples include the mean filter and the Gaussian filter.
 Sharpening Filters: These filters highlight edges and fine details in an image. The
Laplacian filter and the Sobel filter are common examples. They enhance the high-
frequency components of the image, making the edges more prominent.
3. Spatial Convolution
This involves applying a convolution kernel (also known as a filter or mask) to the image. The
kernel slides over the image, and for each position, a weighted sum of the neighborhood pixel
values is calculated to produce the output pixel value.
 Convolution with Smoothing Kernels: For example, using a Gaussian kernel to perform
Gaussian smoothing.
 Convolution with Edge Detection Kernels: For example, using the Sobel or Prewitt
operators to detect edges in an image.
4. Spatial Filtering
This is a more generalized form of neighborhood processing, where the operation applied to
the neighborhood can be more complex.
 Median Filtering: This replaces each pixel value with the median value of the
neighborhood. It is particularly effective in removing salt-and-pepper noise.
Applications of Spatial Domain Image Enhancement
 Medical Imaging: Enhancing features in X-rays, MRI scans, and other medical images
for better diagnosis.
 Satellite Imaging: Improving the visibility of features in satellite images for better
analysis.
 Photography: Enhancing details and correcting exposure in photographs.
 Security and Surveillance: Improving the clarity of images from security cameras for
better identification and analysis.
Spatial domain techniques are essential in various fields where image quality and feature
visibility are crucial.
2) Write about the following:

i. Image Smoothing frequency domain filters

ii. Image Sharpening frequency domain filters
c) Write the details about ‘Histogram Processing’ for image enhancement with example.
 UNIT – III
1 marks:
a) What is meant by Image Restoration?

Image restoration is the process of recovering an image that has been degraded
by using the priori knowledge of the degradation process.

b) Draw the model of image degradation-restoration process.

c) What are the two methods of algebraic approach?

 Inverse filtering
 Minimum Mean Square / Wiener Filtering / Least Mean Square Filters

d) What is meant by least mean square filter or wiener filter?

 e) What is pseudo inverse filter?

The pseudo-inverse filter is a technique used in image restoration to

approximate the inverse of a system or filter that may not have a
straightforward inverse.
3 marks:
a) What is geometric transformation?
Transformation is used to alter the co-ordinate description of image. The basic geometric
transformations are 1. Image translation 2. Scaling 3. Image rotation
b) What is image translation and scaling?
Image translation means reposition the image from one co-ordinate location to another
along straight line path. Scaling is used to alter the size of the object or image (ie) a co-
ordinate system is scaled by a factor.
c) Why the restoration is called as unconstrained restoration?
In the absence of any knowledge about the noise ‘n’, a meaningful criterion function is to
seek an such that H approximates of in a least square sense by assuming the noise term is
as small as possible. Where H = system operator. = estimated input image. g = degraded
image.
d) What are the three methods of estimating the degradation function?
1. Observation 2. Experimentation 3. Mathematical modeling. The simplest approach to
restoration is direct inverse filtering, an estimate F^(u,v) of the transform of the original
image simply by dividing the transform of the degraded image G^(u,v) by the degradation
function.
e) What is blur impulse response and noise levels?
Blur impulse response: This parameter is measured by isolating an image of a suspected
object within a picture.
Noise levels: The noise of an observed image can be estimated by measuring the image
covariance over a region of constant background luminence.

5 marks:
a) Explain the causes for image degradation.
Causes of Image Degradation:
(i) Noise Models:
1. Gaussian Noise: Arises from thermal noise in sensors; appears as grainy texture,
modeled by a normal distribution.
2. Salt-and-Pepper Noise: Caused by transmission errors; appears as random black and
white pixels.
3. Poisson Noise: Due to photon detection in low-light; intensity-dependent, follows a
Poisson distribution.
4. Speckle Noise: Common in coherent imaging systems (e.g., ultrasound); appears as
grainy patterns, modeled as multiplicative noise.
(ii) Atmospheric Turbulence:
1. Blur and Distortion: Caused by random fluctuations in the atmosphere's refractive
index, leading to blurring.
2. Random Motion (Jitter): Image shifts due to rapid refractive index changes, causing
shaky images.
3. Scintillation (Twinkling): Intensity fluctuations due to turbulence, similar to star
twinkling.
4. Anisoplanatism: Non-uniform distortion across the image, making uniform
correction difficult.
These factors degrade image quality by introducing noise, blur, and distortions.

b) What is the concept behind algebraic approach to restoration- Explain?

c) Briefly discuss about inverse filtering.
d) Discuss about Fourier transform and Frequency domain.
The Fourier Transform is widely used in image processing to analyze and manipulate
images in the frequency domain. This approach allows for efficient filtering,
compression, and restoration of images by focusing on their frequency content rather than
their pixel values.
Fourier Transform in Images:
 2D Fourier Transform: For images, which are two-dimensional (2D) signals, the
Fourier Transform is extended to two dimensions. The 2D Fourier Transform of an
image f(x,y)

 Inverse 2D Fourier Transform: To convert the image back from the frequency
domain to the spatial domain:

 Frequency Components: The low frequencies (near the center of the Fourier
spectrum) represent the smooth, broad features of the image (e.g., background), while
the high frequencies (towards the edges) represent the fine details and sharp edges.
Frequency Domain in Images:
 Concept: In the frequency domain, an image is represented by its sinusoidal
frequency components rather than its pixel intensities. Each point in the frequency
 domain corresponds to a particular frequency in the image, with the magnitude
indicating the strength of that frequency and the phase indicating its orientation.
 Visualizing Frequency Domain: After applying the Fourier Transform, the frequency
content of the image can be visualized. Typically, the magnitude spectrum is
displayed on a logarithmic scale to make it more interpretable, with high values
indicating dominant frequency components.
Applications of Fourier Transform in Image Processing:
1. Filtering
2. Image Compression
3. Image Restoration
4. Pattern Recognition

e) With an example, give the difference between enhancement and restoration.

Difference Between Image Enhancement and Image Restoration
Image Enhancement and Image Restoration are both techniques used in image processing
to improve the visual quality of images, but they have distinct objectives and methods.
1. Image Enhancement:
Objective: Enhance the visual appearance or perceptual quality of an image for better
viewing. The goal is to make specific features of the image more prominent or to
improve overall image aesthetics.

Example:

Original Image: A photograph taken in a foggy environment appears washed out and
low in contrast.

Enhanced Image: By applying contrast stretching or histogram equalization, the

foggy image's contrast is increased, making the details in the image more visible and
visually appealing.

Image Restoration:

Objective: Restore a degraded image to its original or undistorted form by reversing

known degradation processes such as blurring, noise, or distortion. The goal is to
recover the original image as accurately as possible, often based on mathematical
models.

Example:

 Original Image: A photograph taken with a moving camera results in a blurred

image.
 Restored Image: By applying deblurring techniques (e.g., Wiener filtering or blind
deconvolution), the blur is reduced, and the image is restored to its original sharpness,
closely resembling the scene as captured without the blur.

10 marks:

a) Describe about Least Mean Square Filters.

b) What is constrained least squares restoration? Explain.
e) What is meant by interactive restoration? Explain.
 UNIT – IV
1 marks

1(a). What is segmentation?

Image segmentation subdivides an image into constituent regions or objects that are
meaningful and non-overlapping based on certain characteristics or features.

1(b) Write the applications of segmentation.

 Detection of isolated points.

 Detection of lines and edges in an image.

1(c) What are the three types of discontinuity in digital image?

Points, lines and edges.

1(d) What is edge?

An edge is a set of connected pixels that lie on the boundary between two regions edges
are more closely modeled as having a ramp like profile. The slope of the ramp is inversely
proportional to the degree of blurring in the edge.

1(e) What is dynamic or adaptive threshold?

If Threshold T depends on the spatial coordinates x and y the threshold is called dynamic or
adaptive where f(x,y) is the original image.

3 marks

2(a) Write about linking edge points.

The approach for linking edge points is to analyze the characteristics of pixels in a small
neighborhood (3x3 or 5x5) about every point (x,y)in an image that has undergone edge
detection. All points that are similar are linked, forming a boundary of pixels that share some
common properties.

2(b) What are the two properties used for establishing similarity of edge pixels?

(1) The strength of the response of the gradient operator used to produce the edge pixel.
(2) The direction of the gradient.

2(c) Give the properties of the second derivative around an edge

  The sign of the second derivative can be used to determine whether an edge pixel lies
on the dark or light side of an edge.
 It produces two values for every edge in an image.
 An imaginary straightline joining the extreme positive and negative values of the
second derivative would cross zero near the midpoint of the edge.

2(d) What is meant by object point and background point?

To execute the objects from the background is to select a threshold T that separate these
modes. Then any point (x,y) for which f(x,y)>T is called an object point. Otherwise the point
is called background point.

2(e) Define region growing.

Region growing is a procedure that groups pixels or subregions in to layer regions based on
predefined criteria. The basic approach is to start with a set of seed points and from there
grow regions by appending to each seed these neighbouring pixels that have properties
similar to the seed.

5 marks

3(a) Explain global processing using Graph-Theoretic techniques.

 A global approach based on representing edge segments in the form of a graph and
searching the graph for low-cost paths that correspond to significant edges.
 This representation provides a rugged approach that performs well in the presence of
noise.

Advantage: performs well in the presence of noise.

Disadvantage: complicated and requires more processing time.

Graph G = (N,U): A finite, nonempty set of nodes N together with a set U of unordered
pairs of distinct elements of N.

(ni,nj) of U: arc

Directed graph: a graph in which arcs are directed

If ni to nj is directed, nj is a successor of its parent node ni.

Expansion of node:

To identify the successors of a node.

Level 0 consists of a single node (start node).

Last level contains the goal nodes.

A sequence of nodes n1,n2,…,nk (with each ni being a successor of ni-1) is called a path
from n1 to nk and its cost is:

Edge element: The boundary between two pixels p & q such that p and q are 4-neighbors.
Edge: A sequence of connected edge elements.
3(b) Explain global processing using Hough transform.
ṇ
3(c) Discuss the role of illumination in thresholding.
3(d) Explain Region Growing.
3(e) Discuss Region splitting and merging.
10 marks

4a) Summarize the detection of edge, line, and point based on segmentation methods
with suitable examples.
4(b) Define Thresholding and explain the various methods of thresholding in detail?
4(c) Discuss Region oriented segmentation.
 UNIT – V
1 marks
1(a) What is image compression?
Image compression refers to the process of redundancy amount of data required to
represent the given quantity of information for digital image. The basis of reduction
process is removal of redundant data.
1(b) What is Data Compression?
Data compression requires the identification and extraction of source redundancy. In other
words, data compression seeks to reduce the number of bits used to store or transmit
information.
1(c) What are different Compression Methods?
Run Length Encoding (RLE) Arithmetic coding Huffman coding and Transform coding
1(d) Define compression ratio.
Compression Ratio = original size / compressed size
1(e) What is JPEG?
The acronym is expanded as "Joint Photographic Expert Group". It is an international
standard in 1992. It perfectly Works with color and grayscale images, Many applications
e.g., satellite, medical,etc
3 marks
2(a) What are two main types of Data compression?
1. Lossless compression can recover the exact original data after compression. It is used
mainly for compressing database records, spreadsheets or word processing files, where
exact replication of the original is essential.
2. Lossy compression will result in a certain loss of accuracy in exchange for a substantial
increase in compression. Lossy compression is more effective when used to compress
graphic images and digitised voice where losses outside visual or aural perception can be
tolerated.
2(b) What is the need for Compression?
In terms of storage, the capacity of a storage device can be effectively increased with
methods that compress a body of data on its way to a storage device and decompress it
when it is retrieved.
1. In terms of communications, the bandwidth of a digital communication link can be
effectively increased by compressing data at the sending end and decompressing data at
the receiving end.
2. At any given time, the ability of the Internet to transfer data is fixed. Thus, if data can
effectively be compressed wherever possible, significant improvements of data
throughput can be achieved. Many files can be combined into one compressed document
making sending easier.
2(c) Define psycho visual redundancy
In normal visual processing certain information has less importance than other
information. So this information is said to be psycho visual redundant.
2(d) Define source encoder
1) Mapper -this transforms the input data into non-visual format. It reduces the interpixel
redundancy.
2) Quantizer - It reduces the psycho visual redundancy of the input images .This step is
omitted if the system is error free.
3) Symbol encoder- This reduces the coding redundancy .This is the final stage of
encoding process.
2(e) Draw the image compression model.

5 marks
3(a) What is data redundancy? Explain three basic data redundancy?
3(b) Briefly explain Transform coding.
3(c) Explain wavelet coding.
3(d) Demonstrate the fundamentals of data compression.

3(e) What is LZW coding? Explain.

10 marks:
4(a) Discuss the image compression models.
4(b) What is lossy predictive coding? Explain.
4(c) Discuss variable length coding in detail.
Huffman Coding
i) Order the given symbols in the decreasing probability
ii) Combine the bottom two or the least probability symbols into a single
symbol that replaces in the next source reduction
iii) Repeat the above two steps until the source reduction is left with two
symbols per probability
iv) Assign ‘0’ to the first symbol and ‘1’ to the second symbol
Arithmetic Coding: