Mobile Networking Part 1 : Medium

Access Control

CE-BE-MCC
Suvarna Chaure
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Computer Engineering,
SIES Graduate School of Technology
 Topics To Be Covered

•Motivation
• Collision avoidance, MACA
• CDMA

2
Motivation

Can we apply media access methods from fixed networks?

 Example CSMA/CD
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
• send as soon as the medium is free, listen into the medium if a collision
occurs (original method in IEEE 802.3)
 Problems in wireless networks
• signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
• the sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the
receiver
• it might be the case that a sender cannot “hear” the collision, i.e., CD does
not work
• furthermore, CS might not work if, e.g., a terminal is “hidden”
Motivation - hidden and exposed terminals
 Hidden terminals
 A sends to B, C cannot receive A
 C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium (CS fails)
 collision at B, A cannot receive the collision (CD fails)
 A is “hidden” for C
Motivation - hidden and exposed terminals
Exposed terminals
 B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B)
 C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use
 but A is outside the radio range of C, therefore waiting is not necessary
 C is “exposed” to B

A B C
Motivation - near and far terminals
Terminals A and B send, C receives
• signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
• the signal of terminal B therefore drowns out A’s signal
• C cannot receive A

If C for example was an arbiter for sending rights, terminal B would drown out
terminal A already on the physical layer
Also severe problem for CDMA-networks - precise power control needed!
Access methods SDMA/FDMA/TDMA
 SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)
• segment space into sectors, use directed antennas
• cell structure
 FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
• assign a certain frequency to a transmission channel between a sender and a
receiver
• permanent (e.g., radio broadcast), slow hopping (e.g., GSM), fast hopping (FHSS,
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
• assign the fixed sending frequency to a transmission channel between a sender
and a receiver for a certain amount of time

The multiplexing schemes discussed in chapter 1 are used to control

medium access!
MACA - collision avoidance
• MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) uses short signaling packets for
collision avoidance
• RTS (request to send): a sender request the right to send from a receiver with a short
RTS packet before it sends a data packet
• CTS (clear to send): the receiver grants the right to send as soon as it is ready to
receive
• Signaling packets contain
 sender address
 receiver address
 packet size

Variants of this method can be found in IEEE802.11 as DFWMAC (Distributed Foundation

Wireless MAC)
MACA examples
MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals
• A and C want to
send to B
• A sends RTS first
• C waits after receiving
CTS from B

MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals

• B wants to send to A, C
to another terminal
• now C does not have
to wait for it cannot
receive CTS from A
MACA variant: DFWMAC in IEEE802.11
sender receiver

idle idle

packet ready to send; RTS

data;
ACK
RxBusy time-out;
RTS RTS;
wait for the time-out ∨
ACK CTS
right to send data;
time-out ∨ NAK
NAK;
RTS CTS; data
wait for
wait for ACK data

RTS; RxBusy
ACK: positive acknowledgement RxBusy: receiver busy
NAK: negative acknowledgement
Access method CDMA
• CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
• all terminals send on the same frequency probably at the same time and can
use the whole bandwidth of the transmission channel
• each sender has a unique random number, the sender XORs the signal with
this random number
• the receiver can “tune” into this signal if it knows the pseudo random number,
tuning is done via a correlation function
• Disadvantages:
• higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen into the medium and
start receiving if there is a signal)
• all signals should have the same strength at a receiver
• Advantages:
• all terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed
• huge code space (e.g. 232) compared to frequency space
• interferences (e.g. white noise) is not coded
• forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated
CDMA in theory
Sender A
sends Ad = 1, key Ak = 010011 (assign: „0“= -1, „1“= +1)
sending signal As = Ad * Ak
= (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)
Sender B
sends Bd = 0, key Bk = 110101 (assign: „0“= -1, „1“= +1)
sending signal Bs = Bd * Bk
= (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1)
Both signals superimpose in space
interference neglected (noise etc.)
As + Bs
= (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0)
CDMA in theory
Receiver wants to receive signal from sender A
apply key Ak bitwise (inner product)
Ae = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) • Ak
=2+0+0+2+2+0=6
result greater than 0, therefore, original bit was „1“
receiving B
Be = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) • Bk
= -2 + 0 + 0 - 2 - 2 + 0 = -6, i.e. „0“
CDMA on signal level I
data A

key A

key
sequence A
data ⊕ key

signal A

Real systems use much longer keys resulting in a larger distance

between single code words in code space.

ICS 243E - Ch3 Media Access Winter 2001 3.14

Coding and Spreading of data from Sender B
Reconstruction of A’s Data
Reconstruction of B’s data
 Module 3 Part2
Network Protocols/Mobile IP

CE-BE-MCC
Suvarna Chaure
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Computer Engineering,
SIES Graduate School of Technology

18
 Topics To Be Covered
• Motivation
• Data transfer , Encapsulation
• Security, IPv6, Problems
• DHCP
• Ad-hoc networks, Routing protocols
Motivation for Mobile IP
• Routing based on IP destination address, network prefix (e.g. 129.13.42) determines
physical subnet
• change of physical subnet implies change of IP address to have a topological correct
address (standard IP) or needs special entries in the routing tables
Specific routes to end-systems?
• change of all routing table entries to forward packets to the right destination
• does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequent changes in the location,
security problems
Changing the IP-address?
• adjust the host IP address depending on the current location
• almost impossible to find a mobile system, DNS updates take to long time
• TCP connections break, security problems
Requirements for Mobile IPv4
• Transparency
mobile end-systems keep their IP address
continuation of communication after interruption of link possible
point of connection to the fixed network can be changed
• Compatibility
support of the same layer 2 protocols as IP
no changes to current end-systems and routers required
mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems
• Security
authentication of all registration messages
• Efficiency and scalability
only little additional messages to the mobile system required (connection typically
via a low bandwidth radio link)
world-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in the whole Internet
Terminology
• Mobile Node (MN)
system (node) that can change the point of connection
to the network without changing its IP address
• Home Agent (HA)
system in the home network of the MN, typically a router
registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagrams to the COA
• Foreign Agent (FA)
system in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router
forwards the tunneled datagrams to the MN, typically also the default router for the
MN
• Care-of Address (COA)
address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at FA or MN)
actual location of the MN from an IP point of view can be chosen, e.g., via DHCP
1. Foreign Agent COA
2. Co-located COA
• Correspondent Node (CN)
communication partner
• Home Network(HN)
• Foreign Network(FN)
Overview COA

router
home router MN
FA
network HA

foreign
Internet network

CN router
Example network
HA
MN

router

home network mobile end-system

Internet
(physical home network
for the MN)
FA foreign
network
router
(current physical network
for the MN)
CN

end-system router
IP Packet Delivery
IP Packet Delivery

HA
2
MN

home network 3 receiver

Internet

FA foreign
network

1. Sender sends to the IP address of MN,

HA intercepts packet (proxy ARP)
1 2. HA tunnels packet to COA, here FA,
CN by encapsulation
3. FA forwards the packet
to the MN
sender
Data transfer from the mobile system
HA
1 MN

home network sender

Internet

FA foreign
network

1. Sender sends to the IP address

of the receiver as usual,
CN FA works as default router

receiver
Reverse Tunneling Problems Associated:
1. Firewalls: firewalls only allow packets
with topologically correct addresses to
pass. This provides at least a first and
simple protection against
misconfigured systems of unknown
addresses.
2. Multi-cast: Reverse tunnels are
needed for the MN to participate in a
multicast group.
3. TTL:The TTL might be low enough so
that no packet is transmitted outside a
certain region.
Solution
Reverse tunneling now creates a triangular
routing problem in the reverse direction. All
packets from an MN to a CN go through
the HA.
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Agent Discovery
1. Agent Advertisement
--HA and FA periodically send advertisement messages into their physical subnets
--MN listens to these messages and detects, if it is in the home or a foreign network (standard
case for home network)
--MN reads a COA from the FA advertisement messages
Registration (always limited lifetime!)
MN signals COA to the HA via the FA, HA acknowledges via FA to MN
these actions have to be secured by authentication
Advertisement
HA advertises the IP address of the MN (as for fixed systems), i.e. standard routing information
routers adjust their entries, these are stable for a longer time (HA responsible for a MN over a
longer period of time)
packets to the MN are sent to the HA,
independent of changes in COA/FA
Agent advertisement 0 7 8 15 16 23 24 31
type = 16 type code checksum
#addresses addr. size lifetime
length = 6 + 4 * #COAs
router address 1
R: registration required
preference level 1
B: busy, no more registrations router address 2
H: home agent preference level 2
F: foreign agent
M: minimal encapsulation ...
G: GRE encapsulation
type = 16 length sequence number
r: =0, ignored (former Van Jacobson compression) registration lifetime
R B H F M G r T reserved
T: FA supports reverse tunneling COA 1
reserved: =0, ignored COA 2
...
Agent Solicitation:

If no agent advertisements are present or the inter arrival time is too high, and an
MN has not received a COA, the mobile node must send agent solicitations. These
solicitations are again bases on RFC 1256 for router solicitations.

30
Registration
The main purpose of the registration is to inform the home agent of the current
location for correct forwarding of packets.
MN FA HA MN HA

t
Mobile IP registration request
0 7 8 15 16 23 24 31
type = 1 S B D MG r T xlifetime
home address
home agent
COA
identification

extensions . . .

S: simultaneous bindings
B: broadcast datagrams
D: decapsulation by MN
M mininal encapsulation
G: GRE encapsulation
r: =0, ignored
T: reverse tunneling requested
x: =0, ignored
Mobile IP registration reply 0 7 8 15 16 31
type = 3 code lifetime
home address
home agent
identification
Example codes: extensions . . .
registration successful
1 registration accepted
2 registration accepted, but simultaneous mobility bindings unsupported
registration denied by FA
65 administratively prohibited
66 insufficient resources
67mobile node failed authentication
68 home agent failed authentication
69 requested Lifetime too long
registration denied by HA
129 administratively prohibited
131 mobile node failed authentication
133 registration Identification mismatch
135 too many simultaneous mobility bindings
Tunneling and Encapsulation
Packets entering a tunnel are forwarded inside the tunnel and leave the tunnel
unchanged. Tunneling, i.e., sending a packet through a tunnel, is achieved by
using encapsulation.

Encapsulation of one packet into another as payload

Encapsulation is the mechanism of taking a packet consisting of packet header and data
and putting it into the data part of a new packet.
The reverse operation, taking a packet out of the data part of another packet, is called
decapsulation.
 IP-in-IP-encapsulation
 Minimal Encapsulation
 Generic Encapsulation

34
IP-in-IP Encapsulation

original IP header original data

new IP header new data

outer header inner header original data

Minimal Encapsulation

The inner header is different for minimal

encapsulation.
The type of the following protocol and the
address of the MN are needed.
If the S bit is set, the original sender address of
the CN is included.

37
Generic Routing Encapsulation
Supports other network layer protocols in addition to IP.
Generic routing encapsulation (GRE) allows the encapsulation of packets of one protocol suite into the
payload portion of a packet of another protocol suite.

38
Optimizations
A Japanese and a German meet at a conference on Hawaii. Both want to use their laptops for exchanging
data, both run mobile IP for mobility support.

39
Optimization (Scenario)

If the Japanese sends a packet to the German, his computer sends the data to the HA of the German,
i.e., from Hawaii to Germany. The HA in Germany now encapsulates the packets and tunnels them to
the COA of the German laptop on Hawaii.
This means that although the computers might be only meters away, the packets have to travel around
the world!

Inefficient behavior of a non optimized mobile IP is called triangular routing.

The triangle is made of the three segments, CN to HA, HA to COA/MN, and MN back to CN.

40
Methods of Optimization
One way to optimize the route is to inform
the CN of the current location of the MN.

The CN can learn the location by caching it in a

binding cache which is a part of the local
routing table for the CN.

41
Optimized Mobile IP

The optimized mobile IP protocol needs four additional messages.

●Binding request: Any node that wants to know the current location of an MN can send a binding
request to the HA.
● Binding update: This message sent by the HA to CNs reveals the current location of an MN. The
binding update can request an acknowledgement.
●Binding acknowledgement: If requested, a node returns this acknowledgement after receiving a
binding update message.
●Binding warning: If a node decapsulates a packet for an MN, but it is not the current FA for this
MN, this node sends a binding warning.

42
 Mobile TCP
E.g. HTTP (used by web services) typically uses
TCP Client Server
Reliable transport between client and server TCP SYN
required TCP SYN/ACK Connection
TCP setup
Steam oriented, not transaction oriented TCP ACK
Network friendly: time-out HTTP request
 congestion
Data
 slow down transmission HTTP response transmission
Well known – TCP guesses quite often wrong in
wireless and mobile networks >15 s
Packet loss due to transmission errors no data
Packet loss due to change of network GPRS: 500ms! Connection
release
Result
Severe performance degradation

9.43
Motivation I
Transport protocols typically designed for
Fixed end-systems
Fixed, wired networks
Research activities
Performance
Congestion control
Efficient retransmissions
TCP congestion control
packet loss in fixed networks typically due to (temporary) overload
situations
router have to discard packets as soon as the buffers are full
TCP recognizes congestion only indirect via missing acknowledgements,
retransmissions unwise, they would only contribute to the congestion and
make it even worse
slow-start algorithm as reaction

9.44
Motivation II
TCP slow-start algorithm
sender calculates a congestion window for a receiver
start with a congestion window size equal to one segment
exponential increase of the congestion window up to the congestion threshold, then linear
increase
missing acknowledgement causes the reduction of the congestion threshold to one half of the
current congestion window
congestion window starts again with one segment

TCP fast retransmit/fast recovery

TCP sends an acknowledgement only after receiving a packet
if a sender receives several acknowledgements for the same packet, this is due to a gap in
received packets at the receiver
however, the receiver got all packets up to the gap and is actually receiving packets
therefore, packet loss is not due to congestion, continue with current congestion window (do not
use slow-start)

9.45
Influences of mobility on TCP-mechanisms

TCP assumes congestion if packets are dropped

typically wrong in wireless networks, here we often have packet loss due to
transmission errors
furthermore, mobility itself can cause packet loss, if e.g. a mobile node roams from one
access point (e.g. foreign agent in Mobile IP) to another while there are still packets in
transit to the wrong access point and forwarding is not possible

The performance of an unchanged TCP degrades severely

however, TCP cannot be changed fundamentally due to the large base of installation in
the fixed network, TCP for mobility has to remain compatible
the basic TCP mechanisms keep the whole Internet together

9.46
 Classical TCP Improvements
1. Indirect TCP (I-TCP)
Indirect TCP or I-TCP segments the connection
no changes to the TCP protocol for hosts connected to the wired Internet, millions of computers
use (variants of) this protocol
optimized TCP protocol for mobile hosts
splitting of the TCP connection at, e.g., the foreign agent into 2 TCP connections, no real end-to-
end connection any longer
hosts in the fixed part of the net do not notice the characteristics of the wireless part

mobile host
access point
(foreign agent) „wired“ Internet

„wireless“ TCP standard TCP

9.47
I-TCP socket and state migration

access point1

socket migration
and state transfer Internet

access point2
mobile host

9.48
Indirect TCP II
Advantages
1. no changes in the fixed network necessary, no changes for the hosts (TCP protocol)
necessary, all current optimizations to TCP still work
2. transmission errors on the wireless link do not propagate into the fixed network
3. simple to control, mobile TCP is used only for one hop between, e.g., a foreign agent
and mobile host
4. therefore, a very fast retransmission of packets is possible, the short delay on the
mobile hop is known
Disadvantages
1. loss of end-to-end semantics, an acknowledgement to a sender does now not any
longer mean that a receiver really got a packet, foreign agents might crash
2. higher handover latency possible due to buffering of data within the foreign agent
and forwarding to a new foreign agent

9.49
2. Snooping TCP
„Transparent“ extension of TCP within the foreign agent
buffering of packets sent to the mobile host
lost packets on the wireless link (both directions!) will be retransmitted immediately by
the mobile host or foreign agent, respectively (so called “local” retransmission)
the foreign agent therefore “snoops” the packet flow and recognizes
acknowledgements in both directions, it also filters ACKs
changes of TCP only within the foreign agent

local retransmission correspondent

foreign host
agent
„wired“ Internet

snooping of ACKs buffering of data

mobile
host end-to-end TCP connection

9.50
Snooping TCP
Data transfer to the mobile host
FA buffers data until it receives ACK of the MH, FA detects packet loss via duplicated ACKs or time-
out
fast retransmission possible, transparent for the fixed network
Data transfer from the mobile host
FA detects packet loss on the wireless link via sequence numbers, FA answers directly with a NACK
to the MH
MH can now retransmit data with only a very short delay
Integration of the MAC layer
MAC layer often has similar mechanisms to those of TCP
thus, the MAC layer can already detect duplicated packets due to retransmissions and discard them
Problems
snooping TCP does not isolate the wireless link as good as I-TCP
snooping might be useless depending on encryption schemes

9.51
3. Mobile TCP
Special handling of lengthy and/or frequent disconnections
M-TCP splits as I-TCP does
unmodified TCP fixed network to supervisory host (SH)
optimized TCP SH to MH
Supervisory host
no caching, no retransmission
monitors all packets, if disconnection detected
set sender window size to 0
sender automatically goes into persistent mode
old or new SH reopen the window
Advantages
maintains semantics, supports disconnection, no buffer forwarding
Disadvantages
loss on wireless link propagated into fixed network
adapted TCP on wireless link

9.52
4. Fast retransmit/fast recovery
Change of foreign agent often results in packet loss
TCP reacts with slow-start although there is no congestion
Forced fast retransmit
as soon as the mobile host has registered with a new foreign agent, the MH sends duplicated
acknowledgements on purpose
this forces the fast retransmit mode at the communication partners
additionally, the TCP on the MH is forced to continue sending with the actual window size and
not to go into slow-start after registration
Advantage
simple changes result in significant higher performance
Disadvantage
further mix of IP and TCP, no transparent approach

9.53
5. Transmission/time-out freezing
Mobile hosts can be disconnected for a longer time
no packet exchange possible, e.g., in a tunnel, disconnection due to overloaded
cells or mux. with higher priority traffic
TCP disconnects after time-out completely
TCP freezing
MAC layer is often able to detect interruption in advance
MAC can inform TCP layer of upcoming loss of connection
TCP stops sending, but does now not assume a congested link
MAC layer signals again if reconnected
Advantage
scheme is independent of data
Disadvantage
TCP on mobile host has to be changed, mechanism depends on MAC layer

9.54
6. Selective retransmission
TCP acknowledgements are often cumulative
ACK n acknowledges correct and in-sequence receipt of packets up to n
if single packets are missing quite often a whole packet sequence beginning at the gap has to be
retransmitted (go-back-n), thus wasting bandwidth
Selective retransmission as one solution
RFC2018 allows for acknowledgements of single packets, not only acknowledgements of in-
sequence packet streams without gaps
sender can now retransmit only the missing packets
Advantage
much higher efficiency
Disadvantage
more complex software in a receiver, more buffer needed at the receiver

9.55
7. Transaction oriented TCP
TCP phases
connection setup, data transmission, connection release
using 3-way-handshake needs 3 packets for setup and release, respectively
thus, even short messages need a minimum of 7 packets!
Transaction oriented TCP
RFC1644, T-TCP, describes a TCP version to avoid this overhead
connection setup, data transfer and connection release can be combined
thus, only 2 or 3 packets are needed
Advantage
efficiency
Disadvantage
requires changed TCP
mobility not longer transparent

9.56
Comparison of different approaches for a “mobile” TCP
Approach Mechanism Advantages Disadvantages
Indirect TCP splits TCP connection isolation of wireless loss of TCP semantics,
into two connections link, simple higher latency at
handover
Snooping TCP “snoops” data and transparent for end-to- problematic with
acknowledgements, local end connection, MAC encryption, bad isolation
retransmission integration possible of wireless link
M-TCP splits TCP connection, Maintains end-to-end Bad isolation of wireless
chokes sender via semantics, handles link, processing
window size long term and frequent overhead due to
disconnections bandwidth management
Fast retransmit/ avoids slow-start after simple and efficient mixed layers, not
fast recovery roaming transparent
Transmission/ freezes TCP state at independent of content changes in TCP
time-out freezing disconnect, resumes or encryption, works for required, MAC
after reconnection longer interrupts dependant
Selective retransmit only lost data very efficient slightly more complex
retransmission receiver software, more
buffer needed
Transaction combine connection Efficient for certain changes in TCP
oriented TCP setup/release and data applications required, not transparent
transmission

9.57
Thank You!
([email protected])

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