Page 1 of 5

CHAPTER-1 Definition of coulomb

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS · When q1 = q2 = 1 C, r = 1 m , F = 9 × 109 N
(Prepared by AYYAPPAN C, HSST, GMRHSS KASARAGOD) · 1 C is the charge that when placed at a
Electric Charge distance of 1 m from another charge of
· Electric charge is the physical the same magnitude in vacuum
property of matter that causes it to experiences an electrical force of
experience a force when placed in repulsion of magnitude 9 × 109 N.
an electromagnetic field. Coulomb’s law in vector form
· The two types of charges are positive and
negative (Named by Benjamin Franklin)
· Like charges repels and unlike charges
attracts.
· When amber rubbed with wool or silk
cloth attracts light objects – discovered by
Thales.
· Electroscope – device for charge
detection
· It is a scalar quantity .
· SI unit of electric charge- coulomb (C)
· Charge of a proton is positive
(1.602192 × 10-19 C) · Force on q1 due to q2 is,
· Charge of an electron is negative
(-1.602192 × 10-19 C)
· Matter with equal number of electrons · Force on q2 due to q1 is,
and protons are electrically neutral.
· Matter with excess number of electrons –
negatively charged · Thus F12= -F21, Coulomb’s law agrees with
· Matter with excess protons – positively Newton’s third law.
charged. Electric field
Coulomb’s law · Region around a charge where its effect
· The force of attraction or repulsion can be felt.
between two stationary electric charges is · Intensity of electric field at a point is the
directly proportional to the product of the force per unit charge.
charges and inversely proportional to the F
square of the distance between them. E =
q
F = qE
· Unit of electric field is N/C or V/m.
· Force between two stationary charges is
· It is a vector quantity.
1 q1q2
F= Electric field due to a point charge
4pe 0e r r 2 1 q
· Where e 0 -permittivity of free space, e r - E=
4pe 0 r 2
relative permittivity. Electric field due to a system of charges
e · Total electric field at a point due to a
· Relative permittivity is given by , e r =
e0 system of charges is the vector sum of the
· e - Permittivity of the medium. field due to individual charges.
·
Also e 0 = 8.854x10-12 C2N-1m-2
· 1
Thus = 9 ´ 109
4pe 0
 Page 2 of 5

Electric Dipole
· Two equal and opposite charges
separated by a small distance.

· Total charge and force on a dipole is zero.

Electric field lines Dipole moment
· Pictorial representation of electric field. · Product of charge and dipole length.
· Electric field line is a curve drawn in such p = q ´ 2a
a way that the tangent to it at each point
q- charge, 2a- dipole length
is in the direction of the net field at that
· Direction is from negative to positive
point.
charge.
Properties of field lines
· SI unit- coulomb metre ( C m)
· Start from positive charge, end at
Electric field due to a dipole
negative charge. Do not form closed
Axial point
loops.
· Field lines are continuous in a charge free
region.
· Two field lines never intersect.( Reason:
two directions for electric field is not · The field at the point P due to positive
possible at a point) charge is
· Field lines are parallel in uniform electric
field.
· Tangent at any point gives direction of
electric field. · The field due to negative charge is
· Number of field lines gives intensity of
electric field.
· Thus the total electric field at P is
positive charge negative charge

q é (r + a) - (r - a) ù Ù
2 2
®
E= ê úp
4pe 0 ëê ( r + a )2 ´ ( r - a )2 ûú
Positive and negative charge (dipole) · Simplifying
® é ù
q ê 4ar ú Ù
E= p
4pe 0 ê ( r 2 - a 2 ) 2 ú
ë û
® 1 é 4qa ù Ù
· For r >> a, we get E = p
4pe 0 êë r 3 úû

Two positive charges

· Using p= q x2a
 Page 3 of 5

· Equatorial field
® 1 é2pù Ù ® -p Ù
E= p E= p
4pe 0 êë r 3 úû 4pe 0r 3
Equatorial point · Thus

Physical significance of electric dipole

Non Polar molecules
· The molecules in which positive centre of
charge and negative centre of charge lie
at the same place.
· Dipole moment is zero for a non polar
molecule in the absence of an external
field.
· They develop a dipole moment when an
· The magnitudes of the electric fields due electric field is applied.
to the two charges +q and –q are equal · Eg:CO2, CH4, etc.
and given by Polar molecules
· The molecules in which the centres of
negative charges and of positive charges
do not coincide.
· Eg: water
· The components normal to the dipole axis
Electric flux
cancel away.
· Number of field lines passing normal
· The components along the dipole axis add
through a surface.
up.
· Thus total electric field is f = EA cosq
· Or

a
· Substituting cos q = 1
and
(r 2
+a )
2 2

simplifying we get
® - q ´ 2a Ù
E= 3
p
4pe 0 ( r 2 + a 2 ) 2
® - q ´ 2a Ù · Unit – Nm2/ C
· For r >> a, we get E= p · It is a scalar quantity
4pe 0r 3
Charge density
· Using p= q x2a Linear charge density (λ)
® -p Ù · It is the charge per unit length.
E= p
4pe 0r 3 l=
Q
l
Relation connecting axial field and equatorial
· SI unit is C/m.
field of dipole
Surface charge density (σ)
· We have axial field
· It is the charge per unit area.
® 1 é2pù Ù
E= p s=
Q
4pe 0 êë r 3 úû A
 Page 4 of 5

· SI unit is C/m2. • Gauss’s law is based on the inverse square

Volume charge density (ρ) dependence on distance contained in the
· It is the charge per unit volume. Coulomb’s law.
Q Applications of Gauss’s law
r= Electric field due to a straight charged wire
V
· SI unit is C/m3.
Gauss’s Theorem
· Total electric flux over a closed surface is
q
f=
e0

· Where q - total charge enclosed

· The closed surface – Gaussian surface.

Proof

· Total flux through the Gaussian surface is

f = E ´ 2p rl
· Total charge enclosed is
q = l ´ l , λ- charge per unit length
• The flux through area element ΔS is · Using Gauss’s law
ll
E ´ 2p rl =
• The total flux through the sphere is
e0
l
· Thus E=
2pe 0r
® l Ù
· In vector form E = n
2pe 0r
Ù
· Where n - radial unit vector

Electric field due to a plane sheet of charge

2
• Where the total surface area S = 4πr .
• Thus

Features of Gauss’s law

• Gauss’s law is true for any closed surface
irrespective of the size and shape.
• The charge includes sum of all charges · Total flux enclosed by the Gaussian
enclosed by the surface. surface is f = E ´ (2 A) , A- area of cross
• Gauss’s law is useful to calculate electric
section.
field when the system has some
symmetry. · Total charge enclosed is q = s A ,
σ – surface charge density.
 Page 5 of 5

sA · Vanishing of electric field (E=0) inside a

· Using Gauss’s law E ´ (2 A) =
e0 charged conductor is called electrostatic
s shielding
· Thus E = ****
2e 0
® s Ù
· In vector form E = n
2e 0
·
Electric field due to a charged spherical shell
Points outside the shell

· Total flux enclosed by the Gaussian

surface is f = E ´ (4p r 2 ) , r- radius of
Gaussian surface.
· Total charge enclosed is
q = s ´ (4p R2 ) , R –radius of shell
· Using Gauss’s law
s ´ 4p R 2
E ´ (4p r 2 ) =
e0
sR 2
· Thus E =
e 0r 2
1 q
· Or E=
4pe 0 r 2
® 1 q Ù
· In vector form E = r
4pe 0 r 2

Points on the shell

s
· On the surface r=R, therefore E =
e0
Points inside the shell

· Total charge enclosed =0

E ´ 4p r 2 = 0
· Thus E= 0 inside the shell.
 Page 1 of 3

Chapter Two 1 q
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE V=
4pe 0 r
(Prepared by AYYAPPAN C, HSST, GMRHSS KASARAGOD)
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL Variation of potential V with r
· The electrostatic potential (V ) at any point
is the work done in bringing a unit positive
charge from infinity to that point.
W
V= , W – work done, q – charge.
q
· Also W = qV
· It is a scalar quantity.
· Unit is J/C or volt (V)
POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE Capacitor
· It is a charge storing device.
· A capacitor is a system of two conductors
separated by an insulator.
· The force acting on a unit positive charge
(+1 C) at A , is
1 q ´1 1 q
F= =
4pe 0 x 2
4pe 0 x 2
• A capacitor with large capacitance can hold
· Thus the work done to move a unit positive
large amount of charge Q at a relatively
charge from A to B through a displacement
small V.
dx is
Capacitance
1 q
dW = - dx · The potential difference is proportional to
4pe 0 x 2
the charge , Q.
· The negative sign shows that the work is Q
done against electrostatic force. · Thus C =
V
· Thus the total work done to bring unit · The constant C is called the capacitance of
charge from infinity to the point P is the capacitor. C is independent of Q or V.
r r
é 1 q ù · The capacitance C depends only on the
W = ò dW = ò ê - dx ú
¥ ¥
ë 4pe 0 x 2
û geometrical configuration (shape, size,
q r
é1 ù separation) of the system of two
W =- ò ê 2 dx ú conductors
4pe 0 ¥ ë x û
· Integrating · SI unit of capacitance is farad.
· Other units are, 1 μF = 10–6 F, 1 nF = 10–9 F,
q é1 1 ù q
W= - ú= 1 pF = 10–12 F, etc.
ê
4pe 0 ë r ¥ û 4pe 0r Symbol of capacitor
· Therefore electrostatic potential is given by Fixed capacitance Variable capacitance
 Page 2 of 3

Dielectric strength e0 A
· Thus C =
• The maximum electric field that a dielectric d
medium can withstand without break-down Combination of capacitors
is called its dielectric strength. Capacitors in series
• The dielectric strength of air is about
3 × 106 Vm–1.
THE PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR
• A parallel plate capacitor consists of two
large plane parallel conducting plates
separated by a small distance
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor
• Let A be the area of each plate and d the · In series charge is same and potential is
separation between them. different on each capacitors.
• The two plates have charges Q and –Q. · The total potential drop V across the
• Plate 1 has surface charge density σ = Q/A combination is
and plate 2 has a surface charge density –σ. V = V1 + V2
· Considering the combination as an effective
capacitor with charge Q and potential
difference V, we get
Q Q Q
= +
C C1 C2
· Therefore effective capacitance is
1 1 1
= +
C C1 C2
· For n capacitors in series
1 1 1 1
· At the region I and II, E=0 = + + ....... +
C C1 C2 Cn
Capacitors in parallel

· At the inner region

· The direction of electric field is from the

positive to the negative plate.
· For a uniform electric field the potential · In parallel the charge is different, potential
is same on each capacitor.
difference is
· The charge on the equivalent capacitor is
Q = Q1 + Q2
· Thus CV = CV
1 + C2V
• The capacitance C of the parallel plate · Therefore C = C1 + C2
capacitor is then
· In general , for n capacitors
C = C1 + C2 + .............. + Cn
 Page 3 of 3

Energy stored in a capacitor

· Energy stored in a capacitor is the electric
potential energy.

· Energy = area under the graph

1
· Thus , U = ´ Q ´ V
2
1
· Also U = CV 2
2
Energy Density of a capacitor
· Energy density is the energy stored per unit
· Charges are transferred from conductor 2 volume.
to conductor 1 bit by bit, so that at the end,
Q2
conductor 1 gets charge Q. · We have U =
· Work done to move a charge dq from 2C
e A
conductor 2 to conductor 1, is · But Q = s A and C = 0
dW = Potential ´ Ch arg e d
(s A )
2
q æ d ö
· That is dW = ´ dq · Thus we get U = ç ÷
C 2 è e0 A ø
· Since potential at conductor 1 is , q/C. s
· Using E = , we get
· Thus the total work done to attain a charge e0
Q on conductor 1, is 1
Q Q U = e 0 E 2 ´ Ad
q 2
W = ò dW = ò ´ dq · Thus energy per unit volume is given by
0 0
C
U 1
· On integration we get, = e0E 2
Ad 2
Q
·
1 éq ù
2 That is the energy density of the capacitor is
Q2
W= = 1
Cê 2 ú 2C u = e0E 2
ë û 0 2
· This work is stored in the form of potential
energy of the system. *****
· Thus energy stored in the capacitor is
Q2
U=
2C
1 1
· Also U = QV or U = CV 2
2 2

Alternate method
· We have the Q – V graph of a capacitor,
 Page 1 of 4

CHAPTER -3 Ohmic conductor

CURRENT ELECTRICITY · A conductor which obeys ohm’s law.
(Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST Physics, GMRHSS,, · Eg:- metals
Kasaragod, Mob: 9961985448)
V-I graph of an ohmic conductor
Ohm’s law
· At constant temperature the current
flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to potential difference
between the ends of the conductor. Non ohmic conductors
· Thus V = IR , · Conductor which does not obey ohm’s
V- potential difference, I – current,
law.
R- resistance
· Eg :- diode, transistors, electrolytes etc.
Resistance
V-I graph of a non- ohmic conductor (Diode)
· Ability of conductor to oppose electric
current.
V
R=
I
· SI unit – ohm (Ω) Circuit diagram for the experimental study of
Factors affecting resistance of a conductor ohm’s law
· Nature of material
· Proportional to length of the conductor
· Inversely proportional to area of cross
section.
· Proportional to temperature
Relation connecting resistance and resistivity Vector form of ohm’s law
rl · We have V = El
R= I rl
A · From ohm’s law, V = IR =
Where ρ- resistivity, A – area, l- length A
Resistivity (specific resistance) I rl
· Thus El =
· Resistivity of the material of a conductor A
is defined as the resistance of the Ir
· That is E = = rJ
conductor having unit length and unit A
area of cross section. ® ® ® ®

RA · Therefore E = r J or J = s E
r= Resistors
l
· Unit – ohm meter (Ωm) ·The resistor is a passive electrical
· Resistivity of conductor depends on component to create resistance in the
nature of material and Temperature flow of electric current.
Conductance (G) Symbol
· Reciprocal of resistance Constant resisstance Variable resistance
1
G=
R
· Unit- Ω-1, or mho or siemens (S) Combination of resistors
Conductivity (σ) Resistors in Series
· Reciprocal of resistivity
1
s=
r
· Unit- Ω-1m-1, or mho m-1, or S m-1
 Page 2 of 4

· In series connection same current pass · Thus effective resistance decreases in

through all resistors. parallel combination.
· The potential drop is different for each
resistor. Internal resistance of a cell (r)
· The applied potential is given by · Resistance offered by the electrolytes and
V = V1 + V2 + V3 electrodes of a cell.
· Where V1, V2 and V3 are the potential drop Factors affecting internal resistance
across resistors R1, R2 and R3 respectively. · Nature of electrolytes
· If all the resistors are replaced with a · Directly proportional to the distance
single effective resistance RS , we get between electrodes
V = IRS · Directly proportional to the concentration
of electrolytes.
· Thus IRS = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
· Inversely proportional to the area of the
· Therefore the effective resistance is electrodes.
RS = R1 + R2 + R3 · Inversely proportional to the temperature
· For n resistors of electrolyte.
RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + ..........Rn Relation connecting emf and internal resistance
· Thus effective resistance increases in
series combination.
Resistors in parallel

· Effective resistance = R+r

· In parallel connection current is different
through each resistors.
e
· Thus the current is I =
· The potential drop is same for all R+r
resistors. · Where e –emf, R- external resistance,
· The total current r- internal resistance.
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 · That is I ( R + r) = e Þ IR + Ir = e
· From ohm’s law, V=IR, therefore
· If all resistors are replaced with an
e -V
effective resistor of resistance RP, we get r=
V I
I= · The potential is given by
RP
V = e - Ir
· Thus
V V V V Joule’s law of heating
= + +
RP R 1 R 2 R 3 · The heat energy dissipated in a current
· Therefore the effective resistance in flowing conductor is given by
parallel combination is H = I 2 Rt
1 1 1 1 · I- current, R –resistance, t –time
= + +
RP R 1 R 2 R 3 Electric power
· For n resistors in parallel · It is the energy dissipated per unit time.
1 1 1 1 1 H
= + + + .... + · Power , P = = I 2R
RP R 1 R 2 R 3 Rn t
· For two resistors V2
· Also P = VI =
RR R
RP = 1 2 · SI unit is watt (W)
R1 + R2
· 1 kilo watt (1kW) = 1000W
 Page 3 of 4

· 1mega watt (MW) = 106W Loop ABCFA

· Another unit horse power (hp) I1R1 - I 2 R2 = E1 - E2
· 1 hp = 746 W Loop CDEFC
Electrical energy I 2 R2 + ( I1 + I 2 ) R3 = E2
· Electrical energy = electrical power X time
· SI unit – joule (J) Wheatstone’ s bridge
· Commercial unit – kilowatt hour (kWh)
· 1kWh = 3.6 x 106 J.
Efficiency
· The efficiency of an electrical device is
‫ݎ݁ݓ݋݌ݐݑ݌ݐݑ݋‬
ߟൌ
݅݊‫ݎ݁ݓ݋݌ݐݑ݌‬
Kirchhoff’s rule
First rule (junction rule or current rule)
· Algebraic sum of the current meeting at
junction is zero.
· Thus , Current entering a junction =
Wheatstone’ s principle
current leaving the junction
· If galvanometer current is zero, P = R
Q S
Derivation of balancing condition
· Applying voltage rule to the loop ABDA
I1P + I gG - I 2 R = 0
· For the loop BCDB
I1 + I 2 + I 3 - I 4 - I 5 = 0 ( I1 - I g ) Q - ( I 2 + I g ) S - I gG = 0
Sign convention · When the bridge is balanced Ig=0.
· Current entering the junction – positive · Thus I1P - I 2 R = 0 and I1Q - I 2 S = 0
· Current leaving the junction - negative
· Or , I1P = I 2 R and I1Q = I 2 S
Second rule (loop rule or voltage rule)
· Thus P R
· Algebraic sum of the products of the =
Q S
current and resistance in a closed circuit is
· This is the balancing condition of a
equal to the net emf in it.
Wheatstone bridge.
· This rule is a statement of law of
Meter bridge (slide wire bridge)
conservation of energy.
· Works on Wheatstone’s principle.
Sign convention
· Used to find resistance of a wire.
· Current in the direction of loop – positive
Circuit diagram
· Current opposite to loop - negative

Illustration

· Where k – key, X – unknown resistance,

R- known resistance, HR- high resistance,
G – Galvanometer, J – Jockey
Equation to find unknown resistance
· From wheatstone’s principle
 Page 4 of 4

P R Comparison of emfs
=
Q S Circuit diagram

· Here P – unknown resistance , Q- known

resistance, R- resistance of the wire of
length l , S - resistance of wire of length
(100-l).

· The length l for which galvanometer · We have, E1 µ l1 and E2 µ l2

shows zero deflection – balancing length. E l
· Thus 1 = 1
E 2 l2
· Thus · l1- balancing length with cell E1
X lr
= · l2- balancing length with cell E2
R (100 - l )r · To get the balancing length E1>E2
· Where r – resistance per unit length of the To find internal resistance
meterbridge wire. Circuit diagram
· Therefore the unknown resistance is given
by
Rl
X=
(100 - l )
· The resistivity of the resistance wire can
be calculated using the formula
p r2 X
r= · when the key K1 is open
l
Where r – radius of the wire, l –length of e µ l1
the wire. · when the key K1 is closed
Potentiometer V µ l2
· A device used to measure an unknown e l1
emf or potential difference accurately. · Thus =
V l2
Principle
· But we have
· When a steady current (I) flows through a V = IR
wire of uniform area of cross section, the .
e = I ( R + r)
potential difference between any two
r – internal resistance
points of the wire is directly proportional
e I ( R + r) ( R + r)
to the length of the wire between the two · Therefore = =
points. V IR R
( R + r ) l1
· From ohm’s law , V = IR · Thus =
R l2
I rl
· That is . V = · The internal resistance is given by
A
R ( l1 - l2 )
· Therefore , V a l or V = kl r=
௏ l2
· Thus ൌ ݇, where k – constant.
௟ · Where l1- balancing length, key K1open,
௏
– potential gradient. l2- balancing length, key K1 closed.
௟
Uses of potentiometer Why potentiometer is preferred over voltmeter
· To compare the emf of two cells for measuring emf of a cell?
· To find the internal resistance of a cell · In potentiometer null method is used, so
no energy loss in measurement.
******
 Page 1 of 4

CHAPTER 4 Units of magnetic field (magnetic induction or

MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM magnetic flux density)
(Prepared by AYYAPPAN C, HSST, GMRHSS KASARAGOD) · SI unit is tesla (T)
Magnetic Lorentz force · Other unit is gauss(G)
· Force on charge moving in a magnetic · 1 gauss =10-4 tesla
field. · The earth’s magnetic field is about
F = qvB sin q , q –charge, v- velocity, 3.6x10-5 T
B – magnetic field, θ- angle between v and B. Definition of Tesla
· Or F = q(v ´ B)
· The magnetic induction (B) in a region is
Special Cases: said to be one tesla if the force acting on a
· If the charge is at rest, i.e. v = 0, then unit charge (1C) moving perpendicular to
F = 0. the magnetic field (B) with a speed of
· Thus, a stationary charge in a magnetic 1m/s is one Newton.
field does not experience any force. Force on a current carrying wire in a magnetic
· If θ = 0° or 180° i.e. if the charge moves field
parallel or anti-parallel to the direction of · The total number of charge carriers in the
the magnetic field, then F = 0. conductor = n Al
· If θ = 90° i.e. if the charge moves · Where, n-number of charges per unit
perpendicular to the magnetic field, then volume, A-area of cross section, l-length
the force is maximum. of the conductor.
Fmax = qvB · If e is the charge of each carrier , the total
Right Hand Thumb Rule charge is Q = enAl
· The direction of magnetic Lorentz force · The magnetic force is F = Q(v ´ B)
can be found using right hand rule.
· Where v – drift velocity
· Thus F = enAl (v ´ B) = nAve(l ´ B)
· Thus
F = IlB sin q
· Since I = nAve
Work done by magnetic Lorentz force · When θ=0 , F=0
· The magnetic Lorentz force is given by
· When θ=900, F = IlB
F = q(v ´ B)
· Thus F, is perpendicular to v and hence Fleming’s left hand rule
perpendicular to the displacement. · A rule to find the direction of the force n a
· Therefore the work done current carrying wire.
W = Fd cos90 = 0
· Thus work done by the magnetic force on
a moving charge is zero.
· The change in kinetic energy of a charged
particle, when it is moving through a
magnetic field is zero.
· The magnetic field can change the · Fore finger – direction of magnetic field
direction of velocity of a charged particle, · Middle finger –direction of current
but not its magnitude. · Thumb – direction of force.
Lorentz force
· Force on charge moving in combined
electric and magnetic field.
· F = qE + q(v ´ B) = q [ E + (v ´ B)]
 Page 2 of 4

Biot-Savart Law

· The magnetic field at a point due to the

small element of a current carrying
conductor is
· directly proportional to the current
flowing through the conductor (I) · The magnetic field at P due to the current
· The length of the element dl element dl , at A is
· Sine of the angle between r and dl m Idl sin 900 m0 Idl
dB = 0 =
· And inversely proportional to the square 4p r2 4p r 2
of the distance of the point from dl. · The component dB sinθ is cancelled by
· Thus the magnetic field due to a current the diametrically opposite component.
element is · Thus magnetic field at P ,due to the
current element is the x- component of
dB.
· μ0-permeability of free space, I – current, · Therefore dBx = dB cosq
r- distance m Idl
m Idll ´ r dBx = 0 2 cos q
· or dB = 0 4p r
4p r 3
But we have r = ( x 2 + R 2 )
1
· 2
and
m
· where , 0 = 10-7 Tm / A R
4p cos q =
(x + R2 )
1
· The direction of magnetic field is given by 2 2

right hand rule.

· Therefore
Comparison between Coulomb’s law and Biot-
m0 Idl R
Savart’s law dBx =
Coulomb’s law Biot – Savart’s law 4p ( x + R ) ( x 2 + R 2 ) 12
2 2

1 q1q2 m0 IRdl
F= dBx =
4pe 0e r r 2 4p ( x + R 2 ) 3 2
2

· The summation of the current elements dl

over the loop gives , the circumference
Electric field is due to Magnetic field is due to 2πR.
vector source · Thus the total magnetic field at P due to
scalar source
Electric field is present Along the direction of the circular coil is
current magnetic field m IR(2p R) m0 IR 2
everywhere B= 0 =
is zero 4p ( x 2 + R 2 ) 3 2 2( x 2 + R 2 ) 3 2
Applications of Biot-Savart Law
· Therefore
Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Current
Loop m0 IR 2
B= 3
2( x 2 + R 2 ) 2
· At the centre of the loop x=0, thus,
mI
B0 = 0
2R
 Page 3 of 4

· The direction of the magnetic field due to Applications Of Ampere’s Circuital Law
a circular coil is given by right-hand 1. Magnetic field due to a straight wire
thumb rule.
· Curl the palm of your right hand around
the circular wire with the fingers pointing
in the direction of current. Then the right
hand thumb gives the direction of
magnetic field.
· Over the Amperian loop B and dl are
along the same direction.
· Thus ò B.dll = ò Bdl ccos0 =B ò ddl
l l l

· That is ò B.dl =B((22p r)

l

· From ampere’s circuital law , B ´ 2p r = m0 I

Magnetic field lines due to a circular current mI
· Thus B = 0
loop 2p r
2. Magnetic field due to a solenoid

Solenoid

Relation Connecting Velocity of Light , ·A solenoid is an insulated copper wire

Permittivity and Permeability closely wound in the form of a helix
· We have · When current flows through the
4pe 0 æ m0 ö 10-7 1 solenoid, it behaves as a bar magnet.
e 0 m0 = ç ÷ = = · For a long solenoid, the field outside is
1 è 4p ø 9 ´ 10 9
9 ´ 1016
nearly zero.
1 1
· Thus e 0 m0 = = 2 · A solenoid is usually used to obtain a
( 3 ´ 108 ) c
2
uniform magnetic field.
· Where c – speed of light in vacuum. · If the current at one end of the
· Therefore the speed of light is given by solenoid is in the anticlockwise
1 direction it will be the North Pole and
c= if the current is in the clockwise
e 0 m0
direction it will be the South Pole.
1 Expression for magnetic field inside a solenoid
· In general , v =
em

Ampere's Circuital Law

· The closed line integral of magnetic field is

equal to µ0 times the total current.

· The closed loop is called Amperian Loop.

 Page 4 of 4

· Consider an amperian loop abcda ·

The magnetic field in the open space
· The magnetic field is zero along cd,bc and inside ( point P) and exterior to the
da. Toroid ( point Q ) is zero.
· The total number of turns of the solenoid · The field B is constant inside the Toroid.
is N = nh , where n – number of turns Magnetic Field due to a Toroid
per unit length, h –length of the amperian
loop.
· Therefore the total current enclosed by
the loop is I e = nhI ,
· where, I –current in the solenoid
· Using Ampere’s circuital law
ò B.dl = Bh = m I
0 e

Bh = m0nhI
· Therefore , the magnetic field inside the For points interior (P)
solenoid is · Length of the loop 1 , L1 = 2π r1
B = m0nI · The current enclosed by the loop = 0.
· Therefore
• The direction of the field is given by Right
Hand Rule.
The magnetic field due to a solenoid can be · Magnetic field at any point in the interior
increased by of a toroid is zero.
i) Increasing the no. of turns per unit For points inside ( S )
length (n) · Length of the loop , L2 = 2π r2
ii) Increasing the current (I) · The total current enclosed =N I, where N
iii) Inserting a soft iron core into the is the total number of turns and I the
solenoid. current.
Magnetic Field lines of a Solenoid · Applying Ampere’s Circuital Law and
taking r2 = r
B(2πr) = µ0 NI
m NI
B= 0
2p r
· Or
B = m0nI
3. Magnetic Field due to a Toroid N
· Where n =
2p r
Toroid
For points Exterior(Q)
· Each turn of the Toroid passes twice
through the area enclosed by the
Amperian Loop 3.
· For each turn current coming out of the
plane of the paper is cancelled by the
current going into the plane of paper.
· Therefore I = 0, B = 0.
· Toroid is a hollow circular ring on which a
large number of turns of a wire are closely
wound. *********
 Page 1 of 3

CHAPTER 5

MAGNETISM AND
MATTER
( Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST Physics, GMRHSS
Kasaragod)
· A vertical plane passing through the
Gauss’s Law in magnetism
magnetic axis of a freely suspended
· The law states that “the net magnetic flux magnet is called the magnetic meridian .
through any closed surface is zero”
Geographic Meridian

· The vertical plane passing through a place

and the geographic north and south poles
is called the geographic meridian at that
place.

Elements of earth’s magnetism

The three elements of earth’s magnetic field are

Earth’s Magnetism
Angle of declination (D)
·
· Earth has an immense magnetic field Angle of Dip or inclination (I)
·
surrounding it and is of the order of 10-5 T. Horizontal component of earth’s
·
· The location of the north magnetic pole is magnetic field (BH)
at latitude of 79.740 N and a longitude of Magnetic Declination
71.80 W, a place somewhere in north
Canada.
· The magnetic South Pole is at 79.740 S,
108.220 E in the Antarctica.

Source of Earth’s Magnetism – Dynamo Effect

· Earth’s magnetism is due to the electric

currents produced by the convective
motion of metallic fluids (consisting
mostly of metallic iron and nickel) in the · The angle between the geographic
outer core of earth. This is known as meridian and magnetic meridian is called
Dynamo Effect. the angle of declination.
· The magnetic declination is different at
Magnetic Meridian different places on the surface of earth.
· The declination is greater at higher
latitudes and smaller near the equator.
 Page 2 of 3

· The declination in India is small, it being Relation Connecting Horizontal component and
0041ʹ E at Delhi and 00 58ʹ W at Mumbai. vertical component

Dip or Inclination · We have BH = B cos I and BV = B sin

I
· Dip is the angle that the total magnetic
· Thus tan I = BV/ BH
field BE of the earth makes with the
· Also
surface of the earth.

· The angle of dip is maximum (90 degree)

at the magnetic poles and minimum (0 Some Important Terms
degree) at the magnetic equator.
· At other places its value lies between 0 Magnetistion or Intensity of Magnetisation (M)
degree and 90 degree.
· Magnetisation M of a sample is the
net magnetic moment per unit
volume, when the sample is subjected
to magnetizing field.

· M is a vector with dimensions L-1A and

is measured in a units of A m-1.

Magnetic Intensity or Magnetising Field (H)

· When a magnetic material is placed in a

· In most of the northern
magnetic field, magnetism is induced in
hemisphere, the north pole of the
the material. It is known as induced
dip needle tilts downwards.
magnetism.
· In most of the southern
hemisphere, the south pole of the
· The field which induces magnetism in a
material is called magnetizing field and
dip needle tilts downwards
the strength of that field is called
Horizontal Component of earth’s magnetic field magnetic intensity (H).
· Its SI unit is ampere/ metre
· The total magnetic field at P can
· The magnetizing field is given by
be resolved into a horizontal
component BH and a vertical
component BV.
where, B – net magnetic field, M – Magnetistion,
μ0-permeability of free space

Relation connecting B , M and H

· The total magnetic field B is written as ,

B = μ0 (H + M)
Relation connecting M and H
 Page 3 of 3

· The dependence of M on H is given by · Also μ r = (1+χ)

M= χH, Where χ – Magnetic susceptibility
Magnetic Flux (φ)
Magnetic susceptibility
· It is the number of magnetic field lines
· Magnetic susceptibility is a measure of passing normally through a surface.
how a magnetic material responds to an · The SI unit is weber( Wb)
external field.

· It is small and positive for paramagnetic

materials ******

· It is small and negative for diamagnetic

materials

Relation connecting B , μ and H

· We have B = μ0 (H + M)
· Substituting M= χH , we get
B = μ0 (H + χH) = μ0H(1+χ) ,

· Thus
· where μ r = 1 + χ, is a dimensionless
quantity called the relative magnetic
permeability of the substance.
· The magnetic permeability of the
substance is μ and it has the same
dimensions and units as μ 0
μ μ = μ 0 μ r = μ 0 (1+χ)

Magnetic permeability (μ)

· It is the ratio of magnetic field to the

magnetizing field

·
Its unit is tesla meter/ampere (TmA-1)

Relative permeability of medium

· Relative permeability of medium is the

ratio of permeability of a medium (μ) to
the permeability of air or vacuum (μ0)
 Page 1 of 3

CHAPTER 6 · Since x is changing with time, the rate of

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION change of flux Φ B will induce an emf
(Prepared by AYYAPPAN C, HSST, GMRHSS KASARAGOD) given by
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

· The magnitude of the induced emf in a

circuit is equal to the time rate of change
of magnetic flux through the circuit.
· The induced emf Blv is called motional
· Mathematically emf.

Eddy Currents
· If there are N turns
· Eddy currents are the surface currents
produced when bulk pieces of conductors
are subjected to changing magnetic field.
· The negative sign indicates the direction
· Eddy currents flow in closed loops within
of emf.
conductors, in planes perpendicular to the
Ways to increase the induced emf magnetic field.

· By increasing the number of turns, N.

· By changing magnetic flux.
· The magnetic flux can be varied by
· This effect was discovered by physicist
· Changing magnetic field, B
Foucault, and hence this current is also
· Changing area, A. known as Foucault current.
· Changing the angle, θ. · The direction of eddy currents is given by
· Rotating the coil in a magnetic Lenz’s law.
field.
· Shrinking or stretching the coil Demonstration of eddy currents
in a magnetic field.
Experiment 1
Motional Electromotive Force

· The emf induced by the motion of a

conductor in a magnetic field is called
motional emf.

Expression of motional emf · When a copper plate is allowed to swing

like a simple pendulum between the pole
pieces of a strong magnet, it is found that
the motion is damped and the plate
comes to rest in the magnetic field.

Reason :

· The magnetic flux ΦB enclosed by the · As the plates moves the magnetic flux
loop PQRS is associated with it changes and eddy
currents are induced on its surface.
ΦB = Blx , where B – magnetic field · Directions of eddy currents are opposite
when the plate swings into the region
between the poles and when it swings out
of the region.
 Page 2 of 3

· Hence the plate comes to rest. currents produce heating in these devices,
which is wastage of energy.
Experiment II
Applications of Eddy currents

· Magnetic braking in trains

· Electromagnetic damping in
galvanometers.
· Induction furnace
· Electric power meters
· Metal detectors
· If rectangular slots are made in the copper
· Induction cookers
plate the area available to the flow of
eddy currents is less. · Speedometer
· The pendulum plate with holes or slots · Induction motors
reduces electromagnetic damping and the
plate swings more freely. AC Generator

Experiment III · An ac generator converts mechanical

energy into electrical energy.
· Nicola Tesla is credited with the
development of an ac generator.
· Modern day generators produce electric
power as high as 500 MW.
· The frequency of rotation is 50 Hz in India.
In certain countries such as USA, it is 60
Hz.

Principle/Theory
· When a metallic disc is placed on one end
of a solenoid connected to an ac source · A.C. generator works on the principle of
and with a soft iron core in it, the disc is electro-magnetic induction.
· The rotation of the coil causes the magnetic
thrown up into air.
flux through it to change, so an emf is induced
Reason in the coil.
· When the coil is rotated with a constant
· The disc is subjected to a changing angular speed ω, the angle θ between the
magnetic field and eddy currents are magnetic field vector B and the area vector A
formed on it. of the coil at any instant t is θ = ωt
· The direction of the induced currents is as · The flux at any time t is
per Lenz’s law and hence the disc is Φ B = BA cos θ = BA cos ωt
thrown up into air. · From Faraday’s law, the induced emf for
the rotating coil of N turns is then,
Disadvantages of eddy currents

· The eddy currents dissipate energy in the

form of heat. · Thus, the instantaneous value of the emf
· Eddy currents are minimized by using is
laminations. ε = NBAω sin ωt
· Eddy currents are undesirable, in most of · where NBAω is the maximum value of the
the electrical devices like transformer, emf, which occurs when sin ωt = ±1.
induction coil, choke coil etc. Eddy · If we denote NBAω as ε0, then
 Page 3 of 3

ε = ε0 sin ωt
· The direction of the current changes
periodically and therefore the current is
called alternating current (ac).
· Since ω = 2πν
ε = ε 0 sin 2π ν t
· Where ν is the frequency of revolution of
the generator’s coil.

Construction
· In most generators, the coils are held
· An AC Generator consists of a coil stationary and it is the electromagnets
mounted on a rotor shaft. which are rotated.
· The axis of rotation of the coil is Hydro-electric generators.
perpendicular to the direction of the
magnetic field. · The mechanical energy required for
rotation of the armature is provided by
· The coil (called armature) is mechanically water falling from a height.
rotated in the uniform magnetic field by
some external means. Thermal generators

· The ends of the coil are connected to an · Water is heated to produce steam using
external circuit by means of slip rings and coal or other sources.
brushes. · The steam at high pressure produces the
rotation of the armature.

Nuclear power generators

· Nuclear fuel is used to heat water to

produce steam.

*******

Working

· When the armature coil is mechanically

rotated in a uniform magnetic field, the
magnetic flux through the coil changes
and hence an emf is induced in the coil.
ε = ε0 sin ωt
· The ends of the coil are connected to
external circuit by means of slip rings and
brushes.
 Page 1 of 6

CHAPTER 7 · v- instantaneous value of voltage ,

vm- peak value of voltage, ω - Angular
ALTERNATING CURRENT frequency.
(Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST, GMRHSS Kasaragod)
RMS Value (effective current)
AC Voltage and AC Current
· r.m.s. value of a.c. is the d.c. equivalent
· A voltage that varies like a sine function which produces the same amount of heat
with time is called alternating voltage (ac energy in same time as that of an a.c.
voltage). · It is denoted by Irms or I.
· Relation between r.m.s. value and peak
· The electric current whose magnitude value is
changes with time and direction reverses
periodically is called the alternating im
current (ac current). Irms =
√2
Advantages of AC: · The r.m.s voltage is given by

· Easily stepped up or stepped down using vm

transformer
Vrms =
√2
· Can be regulated using choke coil without Phasors
loss of energy
· A phasor is a vector which rotates about
· Easily converted in to dc using rectifier (Pn the origin with angular speed ω.
- diode)
· The vertical components of phasors V and
· Can be transmitted over distant places I represent the sinusoidally varying
quantities v and i.
· Production of ac is more economical
· The magnitudes of phasors V and I
Disadvantages of ac
represent the peak values vm and im
· Cannot used for electroplating - Polarity
of ac changes

· ac is more dangerous

· It can't store for longer time

Representation of ac
· The diagram representing alternating
voltage and current (phasors) as the
rotating vectors along with the phase
angle between them is called phasor
diagram.

AC Voltage applied to a Resistor

· An ac voltage can be represented as

 Page 2 of 6

· The ac voltage applied to the resistor is

· Using the trigonometric identity,

· Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule
sin2 ωt = 1/2 (1– cos 2ωt )

< sin2 ωt > = (1/2) (1– < cos 2ωt >)

· Since < cos2ωt > = 0

· Since R is a constant, we can write this
equation as

· Thus
· Where peak value of current is

· Thus when ac is passed through a resistor · In terms of r.m.s value

the voltage and current are in phase with
each other.

· Or

AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO AN INDUCTOR

Phasor diagram

· Let the voltage across the source be

· Using the Kirchhoff’s loop rule

Instantaneous power

· The instantaneous power dissipated in

the resistor is
· Where L is the self-inductance
· Thus
Average power

· The average value of p over a cycle is · Integrating

or
 Page 3 of 6

· Since the current is oscillating , the

· Thus a comparison of equations for the
constant of integration is zero.
source voltage and the current in an
· Using
inductor shows that the current lags the
voltage by π/2 or one-quarter (1/4) cycle.

· Where

Instantaneous power
· Or
· The instantaneous power supplied to the
inductor is

· Where XL- inductive reactance

Inductive reactance (XL)

· The resistance offered by the inductor to

an ac through it is called inductive
reactance.
· It is given by
Average power

· The average power over a complete cycle

in an inductor is
· The dimension of inductive reactance is
the same as that of resistance and its SI
unit is ohm (Ω).

· The inductive reactance is directly

proportional to the inductance and to the
frequency of the current.

Phasor Diagram · since the average of sin (2ωt) over a

complete cycle is zero.
· We have the source voltage
· Thus, the average power supplied to an
inductor over one complete cycle is zero.

· The current
 Page 4 of 6

AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A CAPACITOR

· Where XC – capacitive reactance

Capacitive Reactance

· It is the resistance offered by the

capacitor to an ac current through it.
· The dimension of capacitive reactance is
· A capacitor in a dc circuit will limit or the same as that of resistance and its SI
oppose the current as it charges. unit is ohm (Ω).
· When the capacitor is connected to an ac
source, it limits or regulates the current, Phasor Diagram
but does not completely prevent the flow
of charge. · The applied voltage is
· Let the applied voltage be
· The current is
· The instantaneous voltage v across the
capacitor is

· Thus the current leads voltage by π/2.

· Where q is the charge on the capacitor.
· Using the Kirchhoff’s loop rule

· Therefore

· Using the relation

Instantaneous power

· The instantaneous power supplied to the

capacitor is

· Where

Average power

· The average power is given by

· Or
 Page 5 of 6

·
Thus the average power over a cycle and
when an ac passed through a · Therefore
capacitor iszero.
TRANSFORMER
· It is a device used to change alternating
voltage.
· It works using the principle of mutual · Thus
induction.
· Works only in ac

Construction · For an ideal transformer input power and out put

· A transformer consists of two sets of coils, power are equal, therefore
insulated from each other.

· They are wound on a soft-iron core, either · Thus

one on top of the other.

· One of the coils called the primary coil has

Np turns. · This is the transformer equation.
· The other coil is called the secondary coil; it Types of Transformers
has Ns turns. Step-up transformer
· The primary coil is the input coil and the · We have
secondary coil is the output coil of the
transformer.
· Thus, if the secondary coil has a greater number
of turns than the primary (NS > NP), the
voltage is stepped up (VS > VP). This type of
arrangement is called a step-up transformer.

· In step up transformer, there is less current in

the secondary than in the primary ( IS < IP )

Theory / Transformer Equation

· Let φ be the flux in each turn in the core at
time t due to current in the primary when a
voltage v p is applied to it.
· The induced emf or voltage ε s in the
secondary with N s turns is
Step-down transformer
· In a step-down transformer the secondary coil
· The alternating flux φ also induces an emf, has less turns than the primary (NS< NP).
called back emf in the primary. · Here VS < VP and IS > IP. That is, the voltage is
stepped down, or reduced, and the current is
increased.

· Assuming
 Page 6 of 6
·Minimised by using a magnetic material which
has a low hysteresis loss.
Uses of a transformer
· The large scale transmission and distribution of
electrical energy over long distances is done with
the use of transformers.
· The voltage output of the generator is stepped-
up .It is then transmitted over long distances to
an area sub-station near the consumers. There
Working the voltage is stepped down.
· When an alternating voltage is applied to · It is further stepped down at distributing sub-
the primary, the resulting current produces stations and utility poles before a power supply
an alternating magnetic flux which links the of 240 V reaches our homes.
secondary and induces an emf in it.

· The value of the emf depends on the

number of turns in the secondary. ******

Efficiency of a transformer
· The efficiency of a transformer is given by

Energy loss in transformers

Copper Loss

· As the current flows through the primary

and secondary copper wires, electric energy
is wasted in the form of heat.
· This is minimised by using thick wire .

Eddy current Loss (Iron Loss)

· The eddy currents produced in the soft iron

core of the transformer produce heating.
· Thus electric energy is wasted in the form
of heat.
· The effect is reduced by having a laminated
core.

Magnetic flux leakage

· The entire magnetic flux produced by the

primary coil may not be available to the
secondary coil.
· Thus some energy is wasted.
· It can be reduced by winding the primary
and secondary coils one over the other.

Hysteresis Loss

· Since the soft iron core is subjected to

continuous cycles of magnetization, the
core gets heated due to hysteresis.
 Page 1 of 4

CHAPTER 8 • The electric and magnetic fields in an

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES electromagnetic wave are perpendicular
( Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST Physics, GMRHSS to each other, and to the direction of
, Kasaragod, Mob: 9961985448 ) propagation.
INTRODUCTION
• Electromagnetic waves are one of the
predictions of Maxwell’s equations.
• Electromagnetic waves are time varying
electric and magnetic fields that
propagate in space.
• Hertz experimentally confirmed the
existence of electromagnetic waves with
the help of spark gap oscillator. · The electric and magnetic fields are
• J C Bose produced electromagnetic represented by
waves of smaller wavelength (5mm-
25mm).
• Marconi discovered that electromagnetic
wave can radiate up to several kilometers. • Here k is related to the wave length λ of
DISPLACEMENT CURRENT the wave by the equation,
· From Maxwell’s correction to Ampere’s
circuital law , the total current i is the sum
of the conduction current denoted by ic, • The speed of propagation of the wave is
and the displacement current denoted by (ω/k ).
id . • The magnitude of the electric and the
magnetic fields in an electromagnetic
wave are related as

· Pressure exerted by em wave is called

· The current due to changing electric field
radiation pressure
(or electric displacement) is called
Properties of EM waves
displacement current or Maxwell’s
• They are self-sustaining oscillations of
displacement current.
electric and magnetic fields in free space,
· The current carried by conductors due to
or vacuum.
flow of charges is called conduction
• Shows transverse wave nature.
current.
• No material medium is needed for its
· Thus the generalized Ampere’s circuital
propagation.
law (Ampere-Maxwell law ) is given by
• EM waves are not deflected in electric
field and magnetic field.
• The velocity of em waves in any media is
Nature of electromagnetic waves given by
· An electric charge oscillating with a
frequency produces em waves of the
same frequency.
· EM waves are polarised.
 Page 2 of 4

· Electromagnetic waves carry energy and • They are used in radio and television
momentum like other waves. communication systems.
· If the total energy transferred to a surface • They are generally in the frequency range
in time t is U, the magnitude of the total from 500 kHz to about 1000 MHz.
momentum delivered to this surface (for • The AM (amplitude modulated) band is
complete absorption) is, from 530 kHz to 1710 kHz.
• Higher frequencies up to 54 MHz are used
for short wave bands. TV waves range
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM from 54 MHz to 890 MHz.
· An arrangement of electromagnetic • The FM (frequency modulated) radio
radiations according to their wavelength band extends from 88 MHz to 108 MHz.
or frequency. • Cellular phones use radio waves to
· Some of the waves in the increasing order transmit voice communication in the
of frequency (decreasing order of ultrahigh frequency (UHF) band.
wavelength) are : Microwaves
Radio waves, microwaves, infra- • Microwaves are produced by special
red, visible light, ultra violet, x-rays, vacuum tubes such as klystrons,
Gamma rays magnetrons and Gunn diodes.
• Microwaves are used for the radar
systems used in aircraft navigation. Radar
also provides the basis for the speed guns
used to time fast balls, tennis serves, and
automobiles.
• Used in Microwave ovens.
• In such ovens, the frequency of the
microwaves is selected to match the
resonant frequency of water molecules so
that energy from the waves is transferred
efficiently to the kinetic energy of the
molecules. This raises the temperature of
any food containing water.
• Also used in satellite communication.
Infrared waves
• Infrared waves are produced by hot
bodies and molecules.
• Infrared waves are referred to as heat
waves. This is because water molecules
present in most materials readily absorb
infrared waves (many other molecules, for
Radio waves
example, CO2, NH3, also absorb infrared
• Radio waves are produced by the
waves). After absorption, their thermal
accelerated motion of charges in
motion increases, that is, they heat up
conducting wires.
and heat their surroundings.
 Page 3 of 4

• Infrared radiation plays an role in • The sun is an important source of

maintaining the earth’s warmth or ultraviolet light. But most of it is absorbed
average temperature through the in the ozone layer in the atmosphere at an
greenhouse effect. altitude of about 40 – 50 km.
• Incoming visible light is absorbed by the • UV light in large quantities has harmful
earth’s surface and reradiated as infrared effects on humans. Exposure to UV
radiations. This radiation is trapped by radiation induces the production of more
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide melanin, causing tanning of the skin.
and water vapour. • UV radiation is absorbed by ordinary
• Infrared detectors are used in Earth glass. Hence, one cannot get tanned or
satellites, both for military purposes and sunburn through glass windows.
to observe growth of crops. • Welders wear special glass goggles or face
• Electronic devices (for example masks with glass windows to protect their
semiconductor light emitting diodes) also eyes from large amount of UV produced
emit infrared and are widely used in the by welding arcs.
remote switches of household electronic • Due to its shorter wavelengths, UV
systems such as TV sets, video recorders radiations can be focused into very
and hi-fi systems. narrow beams for high precision
• Used in secret signaling and burglar applications such as LASIK (Laser assisted
alarms. in situ keratomileusis) eye surgery.
• Used in the treatment of dislocations, • UV lamps are used to kill germs in water
paralysis etc. purifiers.
• Used to take the photographs of distant • Ozone layer in the atmosphere plays a
objects. protective role.
• Used in physiotherapy • Used in the manufacture of fluorescent
• Used for determination of molecular tubes
structure. • Used in the determination of age of
Visible rays
written documents
• It is the part of the spectrum that is
• Used in the detection of finger prints.
detected by the human eye.
• Helps to produce vitamin D in our skin.
• It runs from about a wavelength range of
X-rays
about 700 – 400 nm.
• Beyond the UV region of the
• Visible light emitted or reflected from
electromagnetic spectrum lies the X-ray
objects around us provides us information
region.
about the world. Our eyes are sensitive to
• W Roentgen discovered x-rays
this range of wavelengths.
• One common way to generate X-rays is to
• Different animals are sensitive to different
bombard a metal target by high energy
range of wavelengths. For example,
electrons.
snakes can detect infrared waves, and the
• X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in
‘visible’ range of many insects extends
medicine and as a treatment for certain
well into the ultraviolet.
forms of cancer.
Ultraviolet rays
• Because X-rays damage or destroy living
• Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is produced by
tissues and organisms, care must be taken
special lamps and very hot bodies
to avoid unnecessary or over exposure.
 Page 4 of 4

•Used to study structure of atoms

molecules and crystals
• Used to detect cracks and holes inside a
sheet of metal.
• Used to detect hidden materials.
Gamma rays
• They lie in the upper frequency range of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
• This high frequency radiation is produced
in nuclear reactions and also emitted by
radioactive nuclei.
• They are used in medicine to destroy
cancer cells.
• Used to study structure of nuclei of atom.
• Used to sterilize surgical Instruments,
• Used to detect cracks in underground
metal pipes etc

Production and detection of em waves

*********
 Page 1 of 9

CHAPTER 9 Pole

RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS • The geometric centre of a spherical mirror
is called its pole.
(Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST Physics, GMRHSS , Kasaragod, Mob: 9961985448)

Principal Axis
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
• The line joining the pole and centre of
• When light is incident on a surface, it curvature.
partially reflected back, partly absorbed
by the surface and remaining is Aperture
transmitted through the surface.
• Mirrors are used to reflect light efficiently. • The diameter of the mirror.

Ray of Light Principal Focus

• The path along which a light wave travels • The point at which, a narrow beam of light
is called ray of light. incident on the mirror parallel to its
principal axis , after reflection from the
Beam of Light mirror , meets or appears to come from.

• A bundle of ray of light is called beam of Focal length

light.
• The distance between pole and principal
Angle of incidence focus.

• The angle between the incident ray and Spherical aberration

the normal is the angle of incidence.
• The inability of a spherical mirror of large
Angle of reflection aperture to focus the marginal rays and
central rays at a single point is called
• The angle between the reflected ray and spherical aberration
the normal is the angle of reflection Cartesian Sign Convention
Spherical Mirrors • According to this convention, all distances
• The portion of a reflecting surface, which are measured from the pole of the mirror
forms a part of a sphere, is called a or the optical centre of the lens.
spherical mirror. • The distances measured in the same
• Concave mirror – reflecting surface direction as the incident light are taken as
towards the centre of the sphere positive and those measured in the
• Convex mirror – reflecting surface away direction opposite to the direction of
from the centre of the sphere. incident light are taken as negative .
Some definitions • The heights measured upwards with
Centre of curvature (C) respect to x-axis and normal to the
principal axis (x-axis) of the mirror/ lens
• The centre of the sphere of which the are taken as positive).
mirror forms a part.
• The heights measured downwards are
Radius of curvature (R) taken as negative.

• The radius of the sphere of which the

mirror forms a part.
 Page 2 of 9

• For small θ, the point D is very close to the

point P.

• Therefore, FD = f and CD = R.

Reflection of light by spherical mirrors

Concave mirror Some conventions to draw a ray diagram

• The ray from the point which is parallel to

the principal axis. The reflected ray goes
through the focus of the mirror.

• The ray passing through the centre of

curvature of a concave mirror or
Covex Mirror appearing to pass through it for a convex
mirror. The reflected ray simply retraces
the path.

• The ray passing through (or directed

towards) the focus of the concave mirror
or appearing to pass through (or directed
towards) the focus of a convex mirror. The
reflected ray is parallel to the principal
Relation between focal length and radius of axis.
curvature of a spherical mirror
• The ray incident at any angle at the pole.
• Consider a ray parallel to the principal axis The reflected ray follows laws of
striking the mirror at M. reflection.

The mirror equation

• The relation connecting the object
distance (u), image distance (v) and the
focal length ( f) is the mirror equation.

Derivation

• Thus from the diagram

• For small θ, tan θ ≈ θ, tan 2θ ≈ 2θ.

• In the diagram the two right-angled
triangles AʹBʹF and MPF are similar.
 Page 3 of 9

• Therefore,

• Therefore the linear magnification is given

• Since ‫ ס‬APB = ‫ ס‬AʹPBʹ, the right angled by
triangles AʹBʹP and ABP are also similar. v
m=-
• Therefore, u
• The expression for magnification is same
for concave and convex mirror.

• Comparing Equations : Significance of magnification ‘m’

• When ‘m’ is positive, the image is erect

(virtual)
• When ‘m’ is negative, the image is
• Using sign conventions
inverted (real)
• For enlarged image, m>1
• For diminished image, m<1
• We get Uses of spherical mirrors

Concave mirrors

•Used as reflectors of table lamps to direct

light in a given area.
• Concave mirrors of large aperture are
• Therefore the mirror equation is given by used in reflecting type astronomical
telescopes.
• Shaving mirrors are made slightly concave
to get erect enlarged image of the face.
• The same equation can be derived for a Convex mirrors
convex mirror too. • They are used in automobiles as rear view
mirrors because of the two reasons:
Linear Magnification • A convex mirror always produces an erect
image.
• Linear magnification (m) is the ratio of the • The image is diminished in size, so that it
height of the image (hʹ) to the height of gives a wide field of view.
the object (h). Nature of the image formed by a Concave mirror

• In triangles AʹBʹP and ABP, we have,

• With the sign convention, this becomes

 Page 4 of 9

Nature of the image formed by a Convex mirror • The refractive index of a medium depends
on
• A convex mirror always forms a virtual
and diminished image irrespective of the • Nature of the pair of medium
position of the object • Wavelength of light

• Refractive index is independent of the

REFRACTION OF LIGHT angle of incidence.
• The phenomenon of change in path of • A medium having larger value of
light as it goes from one medium to refractive index is called optically denser
another is called refraction. medium.

• A medium having smaller value of

refractive index is called optically rarer
medium.

• Also

Laws of Refraction
n1
• Where n12 =
n2
• The incident ray, the refracted ray and the • If n32 is the refractive index of medium 3
normal to the interface at the point of with respect to medium 2 then
incidence, all lie in the same plane.
n32 = n31 × n 12
• Where n31 is the refractive index of
medium 3 with respect to medium 1.
Snell’s law:-
Absolute refractive index
• The ratio of the sine of the angle of
incidence to the sine of angle of refraction • The ratio of velocity of light in vacuum to
is constant. the velocity of light in a medium is called
absolute refractive index.
• Now
c
n=
v
• Where C - velocity of light in vacuum,
• Where n21 is a constant, called the
v- velocity of light in the medium.
refractive index of the second medium
with respect to the first medium. • When light enters from a rarer medium
to denser medium, the refracted ray
n2 bends towards the normal.
n21 =
n1
• When light enters from a denser medium
• Where n1- absolute refractive index of the to rarer medium, the refracted ray bends
first medium and n2 – absolute refractive away from the normal.
index of the second medium.

Refractive index
 Page 5 of 9

Refraction through a glass slab - Lateral shift

• As we go up, the density of air in the

• For a rectangular slab, refraction takes atmosphere continuously decreases, and
place at two interfaces (air-glass and thus the light coming from the sun
glass-air). undergoes refraction.
• Thus we see the sun at an apparent
• When a light ray enters a glass slab it position raised above the horizon.
undergoes lateral displacement/ shift with • This is the reason for early sunrise and
respect to the incident ray. delayed sunset.

• The perpendicular distance between the Twinkling of stars

incident ray and the emergent ray, when
the light is incident obliquely on a parallel
sided refracting slab is called lateral shift.

Applications of refraction

Apparent depth

• If an object in a denser medium is viewed • The light rays coming from the sun
from a rarer medium the image appears undergo refraction and hence the star is
to be raised towards the surface. viewed at the apparent position.
• The bottom of a tank filled with water • As the density of air in the atmosphere
appears to be raised due to refraction. continuously changes, the apparent
position also changes continuously.
• Thus the star appears to be twinkling.

REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES

Expression for refraction at a convex surface

• For viewing near the normal direction

‫ܔ܉܍܀‬۲‫ܐܜܘ܍‬
‫ܜܖ܍ܚ܉ܘܘۯ‬۲‫ ܐܜܘ܍‬ൌ
‫܍ܞܑܜ܋܉ܚ܎܍܀‬۷‫ܠ܍܌ܖ‬

Apparent position of sun

• The sun is visible a little before the actual

sunrise and until a little after the actual
sunset due to refraction of light through
the atmosphere.

• Time difference between actual sunset

and apparent sunset is about 2 minutes.
• For small angles , tan θ ≈ θ, thus
 Page 6 of 9

• From triangle OMP , • Therefore

• From triangle PCM,

• By Cartesian sign convention
PO = -u , PI = v , PC =R

• Thus equation(3) becomes

• From triangle PMI,

• From triangle OMC, • This is the equation of refraction at

Exterior angle = sum of interior angles convex surface.
• Thus Refraction by a lens - Lens maker’s formula

• From triangle IMC

• By Snell’s law

· The image formation has two steps:

• If I and r are small,
The first refracting surface forms the
·
image I1 of the object O.
· The image formed by the first refracting
surface acts as the virtual object for the
second refracting surface and the final
image is formed at I.
· We have the curved surface formula
• Substituting for I and r,


• Or For refraction at the surface ABC

· Light ray travels from n1 to n2 and O is the

• Thus object and I1 is the image.
· And

· Here R1 is the radius of curvature of ABC.

 Page 7 of 9

· Thus · And the lens maker’s formula

For refraction at the surface ADC

· If the first medium is air n1 = 1 and ,let
n2=n, then
· Light ray travels from n2 to n1.
· Here I1 is the object and I is the image and

· Thus

· Here R2 is the radius of curvature of ADC

· Therefore

· This equation is the thin lens formula.

· Adding equation 1 and 2, we get
· The formula is valid for both convex as
well as concave lenses and for both real
and virtual images.

Linear magnification of a lens

· Dividing by n1
• Magnification (m) produced by a lens is
defined, as the ratio of the size of the
image to that of the object.

· If the object is at infinity, the image is

formed at the principal focus.
· Thus if u=∞, v=f, equation 4 becomes

· The value of m is negative for real images

and positive for virtual images.
Power of a lens
· Thus the lens maker’s formula is given by
· Power of a lens is the reciprocal of focal
length expressed in metre.
· Power of a lens is a measure of the
convergence or divergence, which a lens
Thin lens formula introduces in the light falling on it.
· We have from eqn 4,

• The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre

(D).
 Page 8 of 9

• Power of a lens is positive for a · If several thin lenses of focal length f1, f2,
converging lens and negative for a f3,... are in contact, the effective focal
diverging lens. length of their combination is given by
Combination of thin lenses in contact

· Thus the power is given by

• The total magnification

REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM

· For the first lens, object is at O and image

is at I1.

· Thus

· For the second lens object is I1 and image

is at I. Angle of deviation, (d)

• The angle between the emergent ray RS

and the direction of the incident ray PQ is
· Therefore called the angle of deviation, δ.

Angle of minimum deviation (D)

• The angle of deviation for which the

refracted ray inside the prism becomes
· Adding Equations
parallel to its base is called angle of
minimum deviation.

Prism Formula ( Eqn. for refractive index)

• In the quadrilateral AQNR, two of the

· If the two lens-system is regarded as
angles (at the vertices Q and R) are right
equivalent to a single lens of focal length
angles.
f, we have
• Therefore, the sum of the other angles of
the quadrilateral is 1800.

· Therefore
• From the triangle QNR

• Comparing these two equations

 Page 9 of 9

• The pattern of colour components of light

is called the spectrum of light.
• We know ,exterior angle = sum of interior
angles, thus
d = (i - r1) + (e - r2)
• That is
d = (i + e - A)
• Thus, the angle of deviation depends on
the angle of incidence.

• At the minimum deviation, d=D, i=e,

r1=r2, therefore
• Thick lenses could be assumed as made of
many prisms, therefore, thick lenses show
chromatic aberration due to dispersion of
light.
• Thus using Snell’s law, the refractive index • When white light is passed through a
of the prism is given by prism, it splits into its seven component
colors (VIBGYOR).
( A + D) • If we place a second prism in an inverted
sin
2 position, close to the first prism, the
n21 =
A second prism recombines the colors and
sin we get white light.
2

Prism formula for a small angled prism

• For a small angled prism
( A + D)
n21 = 2
A
Cause of dispersion
2
• Dispersion takes place because the
• Therefore
refractive index of medium for different
D = (n21 - 1) A
wavelengths (colors) is different.
i-d curve Dispersive medium
• It is the plot between the angle of • The medium in which the different
deviation and angle of incidence. colours of light travel with different
velocities is called a dispersive medium.
• Eg :- Glass
Non-Dispersive medium
• The medium in which all colours travel
with the same speed is called non-
dispersive medium.
Eg:- vacuum
Chromatic abberation
• The inability of a lens to focus all
DISPERSION BY A PRISM wavelength to a single point is called
chromatic aberration.
• The phenomenon of splitting of light into
its component colours is known as *****
dispersion.
 Page 1 of 4

Chapter Ten · By drawing a common tangent to all these

spheres, we obtain the new position of the
WAVE OPTICS wavefront at a later time.
(Prepared by AYYAPPAN C, HSST, GMRHSS KASARAGOD)
Wavefront

· A wavefront is locus of all points in a

medium which are at the same phase of
vibration.
· The speed with which the wavefront
moves outwards from the source is called
the speed of the wave. • Huygens argued that the amplitude of the
· The energy of the wave travels in a secondary wavelets is maximum in the
direction perpendicular to the wavefront. forward direction and zero in the
backward direction
Types of wavefront
Refraction of a plane wave
· Spherical wavefront – wavefront from a
point source

· Cylindrical wavefront- wavefront from a

linear source.
• Let τ be the time taken by the wavefront
to travel the distance BC.
• Thus
• From the triangle ABC we get

· Plane wavefront : - wavefront at large • Also from triangle AEC

distances from a point source.

• Thus

• If c represents the speed of light in

Huygen’s Principle vacuum, then,
· According to Huygens principle, each
point of the wavefront is the source of a
secondary disturbance and the wavelets • Therefore
(secondary wavelets) emanating from
these points spread out in all directions
• This is the Snell’s law of refraction.
with the speed of the wave.
• If λ1 and λ 2 denote the wavelengths of
light in medium 1 and medium 2,
respectively, then
 Page 2 of 4

• Therefore the angles i and r would be

equal. This is the law of reflection.
• That is
A plane wave passing through a thin prism.

• This implies that when a wave gets

refracted into a denser medium, the
wavelength and the speed of
propagation decrease but the frequency
ν (=v/λ) remains the same. A plane wave incident on a thin convex lens
Refraction at a rarer medium

A plane wave is incident on a concave mirror

• The angle of refraction will be greater

than angle of incidence.

• Thus, if i = ic then sin r = 1 and r = 90°.

• Therefore The Doppler effect

• The apparent change in frequency of light
• The angle ic is known as the critical angle seen by an observer ,whenever there is a
and for all angles of incidence greater relative motion between source and
than the critical angle the wave will observer is called Doppler Effect.
undergo total internal reflection. • When the source is moving towards the
Reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface observer with a velocity v, then the
apparent frequency of light
v
n ' = n (1 + )
c
· Where ν- actual frequency, v – velocity
· Therefore the fractional change in
frequency
Dn v
=
• If v represents the speed of the wave in n c
the medium and if τ represents the time • If the source is moving away from the
taken by the wavefront to advance from observer, the apparent frequency
v
the point B to C then n ' = n (1 - )
c
• Also • Hence the fractional change in frequency
• The triangles EAC and BAC are congruent is
 Page 3 of 4

Dn v Polarizer
=-
n c • The crystal which produces polarized light
Red shift is called a polarizer.
· When the source moves away from the Analyzer
observer, there is an apparent decrease in • The crystal which is used to check
the frequency of light. This is called red whether the light is polarized or not is
shift. called analyzer or detector.
Blue shift An experiment to study polarization of light
· When the source moves towards the • When unpolarized light passes through
observer, there is an apparent increase in polarizer the light coming out of it is plane
the frequency of observed light. This is polarized.
called blue shift.
POLARISATION

• When ordinary light passes through

certain crystals like tourmaline crystal, the
vibrations of electric field vector are
restricted. This phenomenon is called
polarization.
• Polarization shows that light is a
transverse wave.
• Sound waves cannot polarize.
Unpolarised light

• The ordinary light which contains the

vibrations of electric field vector in every
plane perpendicular to the direction of • If the polarizer and analyser are parallel
propagation is called unpolarised light. the intensity of light coming through the
Representation of unpolarised light analyser will be maximum.
• If the analyser is rotated through 900 the
intensity of light coming out of it becomes
zero.
Polaroids
Plane polarized light
• The polarized light in which the electric • Polaroid is an artificially made polarising
field vibrations of light are confined to a material that produce intense beam of
single plane are called plane polarised polarised light by selective absorption.
light. • Polaroids are in sunglasses,
Representation of plane polarised light windowpanes, photographic cameras, 3D
movie cameras etc.

Malus’ law

• Malus’s law states that when a beam of

plane polarised light is incident on the
analyser, then the intensity of the
Plane of vibration
emergent light is directly proportional to
• It is the plane in which the vibrations of
square of the cosine of the angle between
the polarized light take place.
the polariser and analyser.
Plane of polarization
• It is the plane perpendicular to the plane
of vibration of the plane polarized light.
 Page 4 of 4

• Where θ is the angle between the axes of of the light is reflected and the other part
polarizer and analyzer. is transmitted (refracted).
• When reflected wave is perpendicular to
the refracted wave, the reflected wave is
a totally polarised wave.

Brewster’s angle (polarizing angle)

• The angle of incidence at which the

reflected ray is totally polarized is called
Methods of polarization
Brewster’s angle and is denoted by iB.
• Polarization by scattering
Brewster’s law
• Polarisation by reflection
• Brewster’s law states that the tangent of
Polarization by scattering
the Brewster’s angle is equal to the
refractive index of the medium.
tan iB = m

Proof

• From Snell’s law

• When sunlight is incident on the gas
molecules in the atmosphere, it gets
scattered.
• The scattered light seen in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of
incidence is found to be plane polarised.
Distinguishing a polarized light and
This phenomenon is called polarisation by
unpolarized light
scattering.
• When this polarised light is viewed • When we observe unpolarised light
through a polaroid which is rotated, then (ordinary light) through a Nicol prism
the intensity changes with rotation. (tourmaline crystal), the intensity of the
• The scattering of light by molecules was light coming out of the prism does not
intensively investigated by C.V. Raman change if the crystal is rotated.
and his collaborators .Raman was • But when we observe polarized light
awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in for through a Nicol prism, the intensity of the
this work. light coming out of the prism changes if
the crystal is rotated.
Polarisation by reflection

********

• When ordinary light falls on a surface

separating two transparent media, a part
 Page 1 of 2

Chapter Eleven minimum frequency is called threshold

frequency.
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
• Threshold frequency depends on the
(Prepared by AYYAPPAN C, HSST, GMRHSS KASARAGOD)
nature of the metal.
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Laws of Photoelectric emission
• The phenomenon of ejection of electrons
when light of suitable frequency falls on • The photoelectric current is directly
it is called photoelectric effect. proportional to the intensity of incident
• Photoelectric emission was discovered in light and independent of the frequency.
by Heinrich Hertz. • Kinetic energy of emitted photo
• In photoelectric effect the light energy is electrons depends on the frequency and
converted to electrical energy. does not depend on intensity of
• The photo (light)-generated electrons are radiation.
called photoelectrons and the current is • For each metal there is a threshold
called photo current. frequency, below which no
• Substances that respond to light are called photoelectron emission is possible.
photo sensitive substances. • The photoelectric emission is an
• Metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium instantaneous process.
etc respond only to ultra violet light.
• Alkali metals such as lithium, sodium, EINSTEIN’S EXPLANATION OF PHOTO ELECTRIC
potassium, cesium and rubidium are EFFECT
sensitive to visible light.
• Einstein explained photoelectric effect
Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s observations based on quantum theory.

• Wilhelm Hallwachs and Philipp Lenard • According to quantum theory, light

studied photo electric effect in detail contain photons having energy hν.
using an evacuated glass tube with two • When a photon of energy hν is incident on
zinc plates as electrodes. a metal surface, electrons are emitted.
• A part of the photon energy is used as the
Experimental set up work function and the remaining part of
the photon energy appears as the kinetic
energy of photoelectrons.
Einstein’s photoelectric equation
• Photon Energy = Work function +
maximum K.E. of photoelectron.
• That is
hn = f0 + Kmax
• Thus
Observations

• When ultraviolet radiations were allowed

to fall on the emitter plate current flows • But the work function is given by f0 = hn 0 ,
in the circuit. where n 0 is the threshold frequency.
• When collector plate is illuminated no • Therefore
current flows. Kmax = h(n - n 0 )
• When the frequency of incident radiation • This equation is the Einstein’s photo
is less than a certain minimum value no electric equation.
photo electrons emission is possible. This
 Page 2 of 2

Frequency - stopping potential graph ( for • Each photon has energy E (=hν) and
different metals ) momentum p (= h ν/c), and speed c, the
speed of light.
• We have, the photo electric equation,
• All photons of light of a particular
frequency ν, or wavelength λ, have the
same energy E (=hν = hc/λ) and
• Also in terms of stopping potential momentum p (= hν/c = h/λ), independent
of intensity of light.

• Thus eV0 = hn - f0 • By increasing the intensity of light of given

wavelength, there is only an increase in
h f the number of photons per second
• That is V0 = n - 0 crossing a given area, with each photon
e e having the same energy.
• It predicts that the V0 versus ν curve is a
• The photon energy is independent of
straight line with slope = (h/e),
intensity of radiation.
independent of the nature of the material.
• Photons are electrically neutral and are
not deflected by electric and magnetic
fields.

• In a photon-particle collision (such as

photon-electron collision), the total
energy and total momentum are
conserved.

• However, the number of photons may not

be conserved in a collision. The photon
• Thus Planck’s constant =slope X charge of may be absorbed or a new photon may be
electron. created.
f0
• The y-intercept is - , therefore the Dual nature of radiation
e
work function = - (y intercept) X charge of • Radiation has wave nature as well as
electron. particle nature. This is called the dual
nature of radiation.
Photoelectric cell
*****
• Photoelectric cell is a device used to
convert light energy into electric energy
using the principle of photoelectric effect.

PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT:

THE PHOTON

• In interaction of radiation with matter,

radiation behaves as if it is made up of
particles called photons.

Properties of Photons
 Page 1 of 3

Chapter Twelve • A photon is emitted having energy equal

ATOMS to the energy difference between the
(Prepared by AYYAPPAN C, HSST, GMRHSS KASARAGOD)
initial and final states.
Limitations of Rutherford Model
• The frequency of the emitted photon is
• Rutherford’s model fails to account for then given by
the stability of the atom.
• The energy of an accelerating electron Radii of Bohr’s Stationary orbits:
should continuously decrease and the • The centripetal force for the revolution of
electron would spiral inward and electrons round the nucleus is provided by
eventually fall into the nucleus. the electrostatic force of attraction
between the nucleus and the electron.
• Thus

• Rutherford’s model does not explain the • Therefore

line spectra of atoms.
BOHR MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM
• Bohr combined classical and early • From Bohr’s II postulate the angular
quantum concepts and gave his theory in momentum L= mvr, is given by
the form of three postulates:
Postulate I
• Electrons in an atom can revolve in • Thus
certain stable orbits without radiating
energy.
• According to this postulate, each atom
has certain definite stable states in which • Therefore
it can exist, and each possible state has
definite total energy.
• These are called the stationary states of
• That is
the atom
Postulate II
• The electron revolves around the
nucleus only in those orbits for which • The radius is given by
the angular momentum is some
integral multiple of h/2π where h is
the Planck’s constant (= 6.6 × 10–34 J
s). • In general
• Thus the angular momentum (L) of the
orbiting electron is quantised.
• That is L = nh/2π , where n= 1,2,3
….., is the principal quantum number. • Thus
Postulate III
• An electron might make a transition from • The radii of the stationary orbits are in the
one of its specified non-radiating orbits ratio, 12:22:32:….. or 1: 4: 9: …..
to another of lower energy.
 Page 2 of 3

• The stationary orbits are not equally 1 2 e2

spaced. K= mv =
Bohr Radius 2 8pe 0r
• The radius of the lowest orbit (n=1) is Potential energy
called Bohr radius. • The electrostatic potential energy of an
• The Bohr radius is given by orbital electron is given by
e2
U =-
4pe 0r
• Substituting the values we get Total energy
• Total energy is given by
th e2 e2
• Thus the radius of n orbit becomes: E = K +U = -
2 8pe 0r 4pe 0r
r =a n
n 0 • That is
Velocity of electrons in an orbit

• We have
• But , we have

• But
• Thus

• Therefore

• In general

• That is

• Substituting the values we get

• In general

Energy level diagram of hydrogen atom

Total energy of an orbiting electron

Kinetic energy
• For an orbiting electron , we have

• Or

• Thus the kinetic energy is given by

 Page 3 of 3

• But we have λ = h/p,

Excitation energy

• Excitation energy is the energy required • This is the quantum condition proposed
to excite an electron from its ground by Bohr for the angular momentum of the
state to an excited state. electron
• First excitation energy of hydrogen atom Limitations of Bohr Model
required to excite the electron from n = 1 • Bohr’s theory is applicable only to single
to n = 2 orbit of hydrogen atom. That is electron atoms.
(-3.4) –( -13.6) = 10.2 eV. • This theory gives no idea about relative
intensities of spectral lines.
Excitation potential • Could not explain the fine structure of
• Excitation potential of an excited state is hydrogen spectrum.
the potential difference through which
electron in an atom has to be accelerated ****
so as to excite it from its ground state to
the given excited state.
• The first excitation potential of H atom is
10.2V.
Ionization energy
• Ionisation energy is the energy required to
take an electron completely out of the
atom.
• The ionization energy of hydrogen atom is
13.6 eV.
DE BROGLIE’S EXPLANATION OF BOHR’S
SECOND POSTULATE OF QUANTISATION
• Louis de Broglie argued that the electron
in its circular orbit, as proposed by Bohr,
must be seen as a particle wave.
• In analogy to waves travelling on a string,
particle waves too can lead to standing
waves under resonant conditions.
• In a string, standing waves are formed
when the total distance travelled by a
wave down the string and back is one
wavelength, two wavelengths, or any
integral number of wavelengths.

• For an electron moving in nth circular

orbit of radius rn, the total distance is the
circumference of the orbit, 2πrn.
 Page 1 of 5

Chapter Thirteen
NUCLEI • Here N0 is the number of radioactive
(Prepared by AYYAPPAN C, HSST, GMRHSS KASARAGOD) nuclei in the sample at some arbitrary
RADIOACTIVITY time t0 and N is the number of radioactive
• H. Becquerel discovered radioactivity in nuclei at any subsequent time t.
1896. • Setting t0 = 0
• Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon in
which an unstable nucleus undergoes a
decay.This is referred to as radioactive
• Thus N = No e- λt
decay.
Decay Rate
• Three types of radioactive decay occur in
• It gives the number of nuclei decaying per
nature :
unit time
• α-decay in which a helium nucleus (He) is
emitted;
• β-decay in which electrons or positrons
(particles with the same mass as
electrons, but with a charge exactly
opposite to that of electron) are emitted;
• γ-decay in which high energy (hundreds of • Here R0 is the radioactive decay rate at
keV or more) photons are emitted. time t = 0, and R is the rate at any
Law of radioactive decay subsequent time t.
• This law states that the number of nuclei • Thus
undergoing the decay per unit time is
proportional to the total number of • The total decay rate R of a sample of one
nuclei in the sample. or more radionuclide’s is called the
• If a sample contains N undecayed nuclei activity of that sample.
and let dN nuclei disintegrate in dt • The SI unit for activity is becquerel,
second, thus the rate of disintegration named after the discoverer of
dN radioactivity.
a-N
dt • 1 becquerel = 1Bq = 1 decay per second
• The negative sign shows that the number • An older unit, the curie, is still in common
of nuclei decreases with time. use.
• Thus
Half life period (T1/2)
• It is the time in which the number of
• Where λ is called the radioactive decay
undecayed nuclei falls into half of its
constant or disintegration constant.
original number.
• Thus it is the time at which both N and R
have been reduced to one-half their initial
• Now, integrating both sides of the above values.
equation, we get
 Page 2 of 5

• This energy is shared by the daughter

nucleus and the alpha particle,in the form
of kinetic energy
• Alpha-decay obeys the radioactive law
• Alpha particles are positively charged
particles
• Can be deflected by electric and magnetic
Mean life (τ) fields.
· It is the average life of all the nuclei in a • Can affect photographic plates.
radioactive sample. Beta decay
· Mean life = total life time of all nuclei / • A nucleus that decays spontaneously by
total number of nuclei present initially
emitting an electron or a positron is said
1 to undergo beta decay.
t =
l • In beta-minus decay, a neutron
· The number of nuclei which decay in the transforms into a proton within the
time interval t to t + Δt is nucleus according to

• Each of them has lived for time t. Thus the · Where ν is the antineutrino
total life of all these nuclei would be • In beta minus (β −) decay, an electron is
emitted by the nucleus.
• Eg:
• Therefore mean life is given by
• When β – particles are emitted, the atomic
number increases by one.
• In beta-plus decay, a proton transforms
into neutron (inside the nucleus)

Alpha decay • Where ν is the neutrino

• When a nucleus undergoes alpha-decay, it • In beta plus (β+ ) decay, a positron is
transforms to a different nucleus by emitted by the nucleus,
emitting an alpha-particle (a helium • Eg:
nucleus)

• When β+ particles are emitted the atomic

• The difference between the initial mass number decreases by one.
energy and the final mass energy of the Neutrinos and Antineutrinos
decay products is called the Q value of the • The particles which are emitted from the
process or the disintegration energy. nucleus along with the electron or
positron during the decay process.
 Page 3 of 5

• Neutrinos interact only very weakly with NUCLEAR ENERGY

matter; they can even penetrate the earth • In conventional energy sources like coal or
without being absorbed. petroleum, energy is released through
Gamma decay chemical reactions.
• There are energy levels in a nucleus, just • One kilogram of coal on burning gives 107
like there are energy levels in atoms. J of energy, whereas 1 kg of uranium,
• When a nucleus is in an excited state, it which undergoes fission, will generate on
can make a transition to a lower energy fission 1014 J of energy.
state by the emission of electromagnetic Nuclear Fission
radiation. • Enrico Fermi found that when neutrons
• As the energy differences between levels bombard various elements, new
in a nucleus are of the order of MeV, the radioactive elements are produced.
photons emitted by the nuclei have MeV • Eg:
energies and are called gamma rays.

• The fragment nuclei produced in fission

are highly neutron-rich and unstable.
• They are radioactive and emit beta
particles in succession until each reaches
a stable end product.
• The energy released (the Q value ) in the
fission reaction of nuclei like uranium is
• Most radionuclides after an alpha decay
of the order of 200 MeV per fissioning
or a beta decay leave the daughter
nucleus.
nucleus in an excited state.
• The disintegration energy in fission events
• The daughter nucleus reaches the ground
first appears as the kinetic energy of the
state by a single transition or sometimes
fragments and neutrons.
by successive transitions by emitting one
• Eventually it is transferred to the
or more gamma rays.
surrounding matter appearing as heat.
• The source of energy in nuclear reactors,
which produce electricity, is nuclear
fission.
• The enormous energy released in an
atom bomb comes from uncontrolled
nuclear fission.

Nuclear reactor
• Neutrons liberated in fission of a uranium
nucleus were so energetic that they would
escape instead of triggering another
fission reaction.
 Page 4 of 5

• Slow neutrons have a much higher • The abundant U(238) isotope, which does
intrinsic probability of inducing fission in U not fission, on capturing a neutron leads
(235) than fast neutrons. to the formation of plutonium.
• The average energy of a neutron
produced in fission of U (235) is 2 MeV.
• In reactors, light nuclei called moderators
are provided along with the fissionable • Plutonium is highly radioactive and can
nuclei for slowing down fast neutrons. also undergo fission under bombardment
• The moderators commonly used are by slow neutrons
water, heavy water (D2O) and graphite. Pressurized-water reactor
• The Apsara reactor at the Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai, uses
water as moderator.
• The other Indian reactors, which are used
for power production, use heavy water as
moderator.
Multiplication factor
• It is the ratio of number of fission
produced by a given generation of
•In such a reactor, water is used both as
neutrons to the number of fission of the
the moderator and as the heat transfer
preceding generation.
medium
• It is the measure of the growth rate of the
• In the primary-loop, water is circulated
neutrons in the reactor.
through the reactor vessel and transfers
• For K = 1, the operation of the reactor is
energy at high temperature and pressure
said to be critical, which is what we wish it
(at about 600 K and 150 atm) to the steam
to be for steady power operation.
generator, which is part of the secondary-
• If K becomes greater than one, the
loop.
reaction rate and the reactor power
• In the steam generator, evaporation
increases exponentially.
provides high-pressure steam to operate
• Unless the factor K is brought down very the turbine that drives the electric
close to unity, the reactor will become generator.
supercritical and can even explode. • The low-pressure steam from the turbine
• The explosion of the Chernobyl reactor in is cooled and condensed to water and
Ukraine in 1986 is a sad reminder that forced back into the steam generator.
accidents in a nuclear reactor can be • A kilogram of U(235) on complete fission
generates about 3 × 104 MW.
catastrophic.
• in nuclear reactions highly radioactive
• The reaction rate is controlled through elements are continuously produced.
control-rods made out of neutron- • Therefore, an unavoidable feature of
absorbing material such as cadmium. reactor operation is the accumulation of
• In addition to control rods, reactors are radioactive waste, including both fission
provided with safety rods which, when products and heavy transuranic elements
such as plutonium and americium.
required, can be inserted into the reactor
Nuclear fusion
and K can be reduced rapidly to less than
unity.
 Page 5 of 5

• Energy can be released if two light nuclei device, generating energy equivalent to
combine to form a single larger nucleus, a 10 million tons of TNT (one ton of TNT on
process called nuclear fusion. explosion releases 2.6 × 10’22 MeV of
energy).
• A sustained and controllable source of
fusion power is considerably more difficult
to achieve.
• The fusion reaction in the sun is a multi- *****
step process in which hydrogen is burned
into helium, hydrogen being the ‘fuel’ and
helium the ‘ashes’.
• The proton-proton (p, p) cycle by which
this occurs is represented by the
following sets of reactions:.

• The combined reaction is

• In sun it has been going on for about 5 ×

109 y, and calculations show that there is
enough hydrogen to keep the sun going
for about the same time into the future.
• In about 5 billion years, however, the
sun’s core, which by that time will be
largely helium, will begin to cool and the
sun will start to collapse under its own
gravity.
• This will raise the core temperature and
cause the outer envelope to expand,
turning the sun into what is called a red
giant.
• If the core temperature increases to 108 K
again, energy can be produced through
fusion once more – this time by burning
helium to make carbon.
Controlled thermonuclear fusion
• The first thermonuclear reaction on earth
occurred at Eniwetok Atoll on November
1, 1952, when USA exploded a fusion
 Page 1 of 3

Chapter 14 • It uses only one diode.

• The diode becomes forward biased only in
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS the positive half cycle of ac.
(Prepared By: Ayyappan C, HSST Physics, GMRHSS, Kasaragod) • Efficiency is only 40.6%.

p-n JUNCTION

· A junction formed when a p-type

semiconductor and n-type conductor are
brought together is called a p-n junction.

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE (p-n junction Diode)

• A semiconductor diode is a p-n junction

with metallic contacts provided at the
ends for the application of an external
voltage.
• It is a two terminal device.

Full wave rectifier

• A simple full wave rectifier consists of two

diodes.
Symbol • A centre tapped transformer is used in the
circuit.
• During the positive half cycle first diode
· The barrier voltage of a Ge diode is 0.2V conducts current and second diode during
and that of a Si diode is 0.7V. negative half cycle.

p-n junction diode under forward bias

• In forward biasing the p-side is connected

to the positive terminal of the battery and
n-side to the negative terminal.
• In forward bias, the junction offers a very
low resistance to the flow of current

p-n junction diode under reverse bias

• In reverse biasing n-side is connected to

positive of the battery and p-side to
negative of the battery.
• In reverse biasing Junction resistance is
Filters
very high for current flow
• The circuits used to filter out the ac
APPLICATION OF JUNCTION DIODE - RECTIFIER ripples from the rectifier output are called
• The process of conversion of ac current to filters.
• The capacitor input filters use large
dc current is called rectification.
capacitors.
• Device used for rectification is called
rectifier.

Half wave Rectifier:

 Page 2 of 3

Symbol

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
OR Gate
• In digital circuits only two values
(represented by 0 or 1) of the input and · It can have one output and any number of
output voltage are permissible. inputs.
• The continuous, time-varying voltage or
current signals are called continuous or Truth table
analogue signals.

Symbol
• A waveform in which only discrete values
of voltages are possible is a digital signal.

AND Gate

· It can have one output and any number of

Logic gates inputs.

• A logic gate is a digital circuit that follows Truth table

curtain logical relationship between the
input and output voltages.
• The five common logic gates used are
NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR.
• NOT, OR, and AND gates are fundamental Symbol
or basic gates.
• NAND and NOR gates are called universal
gates.
NOT gate
NAND Gate
• This is the most basic gate, with one input
and one output. · It is a combination of AND and NOT Gate
• It produces an inverted version of the
Truth table
input at its output.
• It is also known as an inverter.
• The table which describes the input
output relationship is known as truth
table.
Truth table
 Page 3 of 3

Symbol

NOR Gate
*****
· It is a combination of OR gate and NOT
gate.

Truth table

Symbol

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS ( IC )

• An entire circuit fabricated (consisting of

many passive components like R and C
and active devices like diode and
transistor) on a small single block (or chip)
of a semiconductor is called integrated
circuit.
• Depending on nature of input signals, IC’s
can be grouped in two categories: linear
or analogue IC’s and digital IC’s
• Depending upon the level of integration
(i.e., the number of circuit components or
logic gates), the IC’s are termed as
• Small Scale Integration, SSI (logic gates <
10)
• Medium Scale Integration, MSI (logic
gates < 100)
• Large Scale Integration, LSI (logic gates <
1000)
• Very Large Scale Integration, VLSI (logic
gates > 1000).
• The most widely used IC technology is the
Monolithic Integrated Circuit.