Republic of the Philippines

ABRA STATE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Bangued Campus
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
AY: 2024-2025

Group 2
Name of Students:

SALABAO, Dusty Gail A.

BARILA, Vanessa Faye P.
PALMOS, Alpha Janelle L.
BAYLE, Gelrayne T.
CLAOR, Pauline Nadine A.
TALLEDO, Ivory B.
BARBERO, Francell Joyce
COLLADO, Xavier Mike A.

BSEd Science 3
 1.2 Student Diversity
1.2.1 Individual Differences

Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

 Identify the different factors that bring about diversity in the classroom.
 Demonstrate a positive attitude towards diversity as an enriching element in
the learning environment.
 Come up with teaching strategies that consider student diversity.

Engage

1. Examine the class where you belong.

2. Each of you will provide information about your

Name:
Age:
Gender:
Nationality:
Province:
Language/ dialect spoken:
Hobbies/Interest:
Favorite subject:
Subject you are best in:
Subject you find difficult:
Ambition:

Explore

Analysis:
1. In what ways are you and your classmate similar?
2. In what ways are you and your classmates different?
3. How does a girl and a boy differ in behavior?
4. In what ways does an American differ from a Filipino?
5. How does life in a province differ from in the city?
6. Are you glad you have similarities? Differences?
7. How can the teacher utilize these similarities and differences in teaching
you?
 8. Explain
Student Diversity in classroom
Diversity- from the Latin word Divertere which means to turn away, separate, or
oppose.
According to Collins Dictionary, diversity is the state or quality of being different
or varied; a variety or assortment; a point of difference; the inclusion of people of
different races, genders, religions, etc. in a group; the relation that holds between two
entities when and only when are not identical; the property of being numerically
distinct.
People’s differences which may relate to their races, ethnicity, gender, sexual
orientation, language, culture, religion, mental and physical ability, class and
immigration status (UNESCO 2017)
Factors that bring about student diversity
1. Socioeconomic Status- the millionaire’s lifestyle differs from that of the
middle income or lower income group.
2. Thinking / Learning style – some of you learn better by seeing something,
others by just listening; and still others by doing something.
3. Exceptionalities- in class, there may be one who has difficulty in spoken
language comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc.

How student diversity enriches the learning environment.

 A teacher may be challenged to handle a class with students so diverse. There
may be students having different cultural backgrounds, different language
abilities, different attitudes and aptitudes and behaviors. Some teachers might
see this diversity as a difficult predicament, really a hassle! Yet a more
reflective teacher may see a diverse classroom as an exciting place to learn not
just for her students, but for herself as well.

1. Student’s self- awareness is enhanced by diversity.

 exposing students to other with diverse backgrounds and experiences also
serves to help students focus on their awareness of themselves. When they see
how others are different, students are given reference points or comparative
perspective which sharpen assessment of their own attitudes, values, and
behaviors.

2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development.

 The opportunity to gain access to the perspectives of peers and to learn from
other students, rather the instructor only maybe especially important for
promoting the cognitive development of the learners.
Supreme Court Justice, Wiliam J. Brennan “The classroom is peculiarly the
‘marketplace of ideas. The depth and breadth of student learning are enhanced
 by exposure to others from diverse backgrounds. Students’ diversity in the
classroom brings about different point of view and varied approaches to the
learning process.
As the German philosopher, Nietzche, said over 100 years ago; “The
more more affects we allow to speak about one thing, the more eyes, different
eyes, we can use to observe one thing., the more complete will our concept of
this thing, our objectivity, be”

3. Student diversity prepares learners for their rule as responsible

members of society.
 Suzanne Morse stresses one competency that has strong implications for
instructional strategies that capitalized on diversity. “The capacity to imagine
situations or problems from all perspectives and to appreciate all aspects of
diversity.” Furthermore, she argues: “The classroom can provide more than
just theory given by the teacher in a lecture. Which student diversity, the
classroom becomes a public place’ where community can be practiced.

4. Students’ diversity can promote harmony.

 When students’ diversity is integrated into the classroom teaching and learning
process, it can become a vehicle for promoting harmonious race relations.
Through student centered teaching learning strategies, diverse students can be
encouraged to interact and collaborate with one another, on learning task, that
emphasize unity effort while capitalizing on their diversity of backgrounds.

Some tips on student diversity

1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.

2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote student’s
multicultural and cross-cultural awareness.
3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend
group differences.
4. Communicate high expectations to students from all sub-groups.
5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in
learning styles.
6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concept in order to provide multiple
contexts that are relevant to students from diverse backgrounds.
7. Adapt to student’s diverse backgrounds and learning styles by allowing them
personal choice and decision-making opportunities concerning what they will
learn and how they will learn it.
8. Diversity your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.
9. Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse
backgrounds, you can form groups of students with different learning styles,
different cultural backgrounds, etc.
 10. Elaborate

Education is a dynamic process that caters to a wide range of students with unique
backgrounds, abilities, and learning styles. Student diversity and individual
differences play a crucial role in shaping the teaching and learning experience.
Understanding these variations helps educators create an inclusive and effective
classroom environment that meets the needs of all learners.

Student diversity encompasses differences in culture, language, socioeconomic

background, and personal experiences. In a multicultural classroom, students bring
various traditions, values, and perspectives that influence how they engage with
learning. Some students may speak multiple languages, while others may require
additional support as English language learners. Socioeconomic factors also impact
access to educational resources, creating the need for equitable learning opportunities.
Moreover, students differ in gender identity, neurodiversity, and emotional
development, requiring teachers to foster an environment of respect and inclusivity.

Beyond diversity, individual differences affect how students process information and
approach learning. Cognitive abilities, learning styles, motivation, and emotional
intelligence vary from one student to another. While some learners excel in visual or
hands-on activities, others may prefer auditory or reading-based instruction.
Additionally, students with special educational needs require personalized strategies
to support their academic success. Recognizing these differences allows educators to
implement differentiated instruction, culturally responsive teaching, and Universal
Design for Learning (UDL) strategies to ensure all students can thrive.

By embracing student diversity and individual differences, educators can create a

more inclusive and engaging learning environment. Adaptable teaching methods,
personalized learning, and interactive classroom activities help address the varied
needs of students, ensuring that every learner has the opportunity to succeed. In doing
so, education becomes not only a means of knowledge acquisition but also a pathway
to equity, understanding, and growth for all students.

Evaluate:

Answer the following questions by identifying what is being ask.

1. What are the 3 factors that brings student diversity in a classroom.

2. Give 4 examples on how student diversity enriches the learning environment.
3. What are the tips on how to handle student diversity. Base from our
discussion.

References:
Lucas, M. R. D., & Corpuz, B. B. (2007). Facilitating learning: A metacognitive
process. Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved as of 12/02/25.

https://www.scribd.com/document/535840026/Facilitating-Learning-a-
Metacognitive-Process?
fbclid=IwY2xjawIZNmBleHRuA2FlbQIxMAABHa3ll3YQmge4QyrvZhifNj26iPNkj
AR5HAr2X-W59pZ06IxK8cWuDe9qCQ_aem_gDM99wqdszX6KN5FA7W8mg

Republic of the Philippines

ABRA STATE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
 Bangued Campus
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
AY: 2024-2025

Learning/Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson the learners should be able to:

A. Describe the different learning/thinking styles and multiple intelligences.

B. Pinpoint your own learning/thinking style/s and multiple intelligences.
C. Plan learning activities that match learners’ learning/thinking styles and
multiple intelligences.

Overview
One factor that brings about student diversity is thinking/learning styles.
Individuals think and learn in distinct ways. In any group of learners there will always
be different learning characteristics, particularly in the learners’ manner of processing
information.

Engage

What type of learner are you? What’s your style? Answer the Learning Style
Inventory below by putting a check (/) mark on the letter of your answer. Then,
answer the questions that follows:

1. If I have to learn how to do something, I learn best when I:

(V) watch someone show me how.
(A) hear someone tell me how.
(K) try to do it myself
2. When I read, I often find that I:
(V) visualize what I am reading in my mind’s eye.
(A) read out loud or hear the words inside my head.
(K) Fidget and try to “feel” the content.
3. When asked to give directions, I:
(V) see the actual places in my mind as I say them or I prefer to draw them.
(A) have no difficulty in giving them verbally.
(K) have to point or move my body as I give them.
4. If I am unsure how to spell a word, I:
(V) write it in order to determine if it looks right.
(A) Spell it out loud in order to determine if it sounds right.
(K) write it in order to determine if it feels right.
5. When I write, I:
(V) am concerned how neat and well-spaced my letters and words appear.
(A) often say the letters and words to myself.
(K) push hard on my pen or pencil and can feel the flow of the words or letters as I
form them.
6. If I had to remember a list of items, I would remember it best if I:
(V) wrote them down
(A) said them over and over to myself
(K) moved around and used my fingers to name each item
7. I prefer teachers who:
(V) use the board or overhead projector while they lecture
(A) talk with a lot of expression
(K) use hands-on activities
8. When trying to concentrate, I have a difficult time when:
(V) there is a lot of clutter or movement in the room
(A) there is a lot of noise in the room
(K) I have to sit still for any length of time
9. When solving a problem, I:
(V) write or draw diagrams to see it
(A) talk myself through it
(K) use my entire body or move objects to help me think
10. When given written instructions on how to build something, I:
(V) read them silently and try to visualize how the parts will fit together
(A) read them out loud and talk to myself as I put the parts together
(K) try to put the parts together first and read later
11. To keep occupied while waiting, I:
(V) look around, stare or read
(A) talk or listen to others
(K) walk around, manipulate things with my hands, or move/shake my feet as I sit
12. If I had to verbally describe something to another person, I would:
(V) be brief because I do not like to talk at length
(A) go into great detail because I like to talk
(K) gesture and move around while talking
13. If someone were verbally describing something to me, I would:
(V) try to visualize what she was saying
(A) enjoy listening but want to interrupt and talk myself
(K) become bored if her description gets too long and detailed
14. When trying to recall names, I remember:
(V) faces but forget names (A) names, but forget faces
(K) the situation that I met the person other than the person’s name or face
Scoring Instructions: Add the number of responses for each letter and enter the total
below. The area with the highest number of responses is your primary mode of
learning.

Visual Auditory
Kinesthetic
V = _____ A = ______ K = ______

(Retrieved from: http://www.gigglepotz.com/learnstyles.pdf)

1. What do your scores tell you about your learning and thinking styles?
2. Do you agree with your scores?
3. Is it possible for one to score equally on the three styles? Explain.

Explore

Scan the QR code below and watch the video. After watching it, answer the
following questions.

SCAN ME

Questions:
1. Do you agree in the statement “learning style is a myth”, why or
why not?
2. In what ways might the belief in learning styles influence a
student’s motivation and engagement in the classroom, and how
could this impact their overall learning experience?
3. What strategies does the speaker suggests for enhancing learning
that move beyond the idea of catering to individual learning that
move beyond the idea of catering to individual learning styles,
and how can these be applied in diverse educational settings?

Explain
 The inventory you just answered reflects whether you are a visual, auditory, or
kinesthetic learner. This is only but one way of describing the variations of learning
and teaching styles. A. Hilliard describes “learning style” as the sum of the patterns of
how individuals develop habitual ways of responding to experience. Howard Gardner
identified nine kinds of intelligences that individuals may have.

Learning/Thinking Styles

Learning/Thinking styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes

information. They describe a person’s typical mode of thinking, remembering, or
problem solving. Furthermore, styles are usually considered to be bipolar dimensions.
Your style is usually described as a personality dimension which influences your
attitudes, values and social interaction

There are several perspectives about learning-thinking styles.

Sensory Preferences. Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types of

sensory input and maintain a dominance in one of the following types:

Visual Learners. These learners must see their teacher’s actions and facial
expressions to fully understand the content of a lesson. They tend to prefer sitting in
front so no one would block their view. They may think in pictures and learn best
from visual aids including diagrams, illustrated textbooks, overhead transparencies,
videos, flipcharts, and hand-outs. During a lecture or classroom discussion, visual
learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the information.
Auditory Learners. They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking
things through and listening to what others have to say. Auditory learners interpret the
underlying meanings of speech through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed and
other nuances.
Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners. They benefit much from a hands-on approach,
actively exploring the physical world around them. They tend to prefer “learning by
doing,” preferring the use of psychomotor skills to, say, abstract thinking skills. They
tend to have good motor memory and motor coordination.
Global - Analytic Continuum
Analytic
Analytic thinkers tend toward the linear, step-by-step processes of learning.
They tend to see finite elements of patterns rather than the whole; they are the "tree
seers." They are more comfortable in a world of details and hierarchies of
information.
Global
Global thinkers lean towards non-linear thought and tend to see the whole
pattern rather than particle elements. They are the "forest seers" who give attention
only to the overall structure and sometimes ignore details.
Several theorists have tied the global-analytic continuum to the
left-brain/right-brain continuum. In accord with Roger Sperry's model, the left-
brained dominant individual is portrayed as the linear (analytic), verbal, mathematical
thinker while the right-brained person is one who is viewed as global, non-linear and
holistic in thought preferences.
Both sides of the brain can reason but through different strategies. In an
individual, one side may be more dominant than the other. The left brain is regarded
as analytic in approach while the right is described as holistic or global. A successive
processor (left brain) prefers to learn in a step-bystep sequential format, beginning
with details leading to a conceptual understanding of a skill. A simultaneous
processor (right brain) prefers to learn beginning with the general concept and then
going on to specifics. See the comparison:

LEFT BRAIN ( Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN ( Global)

Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
1. Verbal 1. Visual
2. Responds to word meaning 2. Responds to tone of voice
3. Sequential 3. Random
4. Process information linearly 4. Process information in varied order
5. Responds to logic 5. Responds to emotion
6. Plans ahead 6. Impulsive
7. Recalls people’s name 7. Recalls people’s face
8. Speaks with few gesture 8. Gesture when speaking
9. Punctual 9. Less punctual
10. Prefers formal study design 10. Prefers sound/music background while
studying
11. Prefers bright light while studying 11. Prefers frequent mobility while studying

Multiple Intelligences

The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first described by Howard

Gardner in Frames of Mind (1983). Gardner defines intelligence as “an ability or set
of abilities that allows a person to solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued
in one or more cultures”. Gardner believes that different intelligences may be
independent abilities – a person can be low in one domain area but high in another.
All of us possess the intelligences but in varying degrees of strength.
His most current research indicates that there are nine distinct forms of intelligences.
In order to facilitate learning effectively, teachers should use strategies that match
these kinds of intelligences. The nine kinds are:
Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) – learning visually and organizing ideas
spatially. Seeing concepts in action in order to understand them. The ability to “see”
things in one’s mind in planning to create a product or solve a problem.
Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart) – learning through the spoken and written word.
This intelligence is always values in the traditional classroom and in traditional
assessments of intelligence and achievement.
Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/Logic Smart) – learning through reasoning
and problem-solving. Also highly valued in the traditional classroom where students
are asked to adapt to logically sequenced delivery of instruction.
Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart) – learning through interaction with one’s
environment. This intelligence is the domain of “overly active” learners. It promotes
understanding through concrete experience.
Musical (Music Smart) – learning through patterns, rhythms, and music. This
includes not only auditory learning but also the identification of patterns through all
the senses.
Intrapersonal (Self Smart) – learning through feelings, values and attitudes. This is
a decidedly affective component of learning through which students place value on
what they learn and take ownership for their learning.
Interpersonal (People Smart) – learning through interaction with others. Not the
domain of children who are simply “talkative” or “overly social.” This intelligence
promotes collaboration and working cooperatively with others.
Naturalist (Nature Smart) – learning through classification, categories and
hierarchies. It is not simply the study of nature; it can be used in all areas of study.
Existential (Spirit Smart) – learning by seeing the “big picture”: Why are we here?”
What is my role in the world?” What is my place in my family, school, and
community?” This intelligence seeks connections to real world understanding and
application of new learning.

Teaching Strategies guided by Thinking/Learning Styles and Multiple

Intelligence

1. Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from recalling
factual information to drawing implications and making value judgments.
2. Provide a general overview of material to be learned, i.e., structured overviews,
advance organizers, etc., so that students past experiences will be associated with the
new ideas.
3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate using both
the right and left-brain hemispheres.
4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing or reading experience.
5. Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set induction, etc.
6. Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information (Write
directions on the board and give them orally.)
7. Use of variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning
(writing summaries, creating opinion surveys, etc.)
8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising (“The example you’ve
provided is an excellent one to point to the concept of ….”).
(From Cornett, C. E. (1983). What you should know about teaching and learning
styles. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation).

Elaborate
The exploration of learning and teaching styles, along with Howard Gardner's
theory of multiple intelligences, underscores the importance of recognizing individual
differences in educational settings. Understanding that learners have distinct
preferences—whether they are visual, auditory, or kinesthetic—allows educators to
tailor their teaching methods to better meet the diverse needs of students.
Gardner's identification of nine intelligences broadens our perception of intelligence
beyond traditional measures, highlighting that each student brings unique strengths to
the classroom. By leveraging these different intelligences, teachers can create a more
inclusive and effective learning environment that promotes engagement and deeper
understanding.
Implementing varied teaching strategies, such as using multisensory approaches,
providing clear objectives, and offering descriptive feedback, can enhance students'
learning experiences. Ultimately, recognizing and accommodating different learning
styles and intelligences not only fosters critical thinking and problem-solving skills
but also empowers students to take ownership of their learning journey, preparing
them for success in an increasingly complex world.

Evaluate
Answer the following questions.
1. In your own words, describe the different learning/thinking styles and multiple
intelligences.
2. What is your learning/thinking styles? What are your dominant multiple
intelligences?
3. Choose a topic from your field of specialization. Think of at least ten (10)
learning activities relevant to the topic you picked. Indicate the thinking/learning
styles and multiple intelligences that each learning activity can address.
Remember, a learning activity may address both thinking/learning style and
multiple intelligence.

Topic Learning Activity Learning Styles/Multiple

Intelligence
E.g. Environmental Research projects on Analytical/Logical-
Science renewable energy Mathematical Intelligence
sources
Learners with Exceptionalities

Overview

One significant factor that highlights individual differences and diversity in

learning is the presence of exceptionalities. We commonly refer to learners with
exceptionalities as persons who are different in some way from the “normal” or
“average”.

Learning Objectives

At the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to:

1. Describe the basic categories of exceptional learners.
2. Define and distinguish the terms disability and handicap.
3. Demonstrate “people first” language when referring to exceptional learners and
advocate for its use.

Engage
“The only disability in life is a bad attitude.” – Scott Hamilton
Read the quote and answer the question below.
What are the implications of this quote for educators working with students who have
diverse learning needs? How can teachers foster a positive and supportive learning
environment?

Explore
Scan the QR code below and watch the film.
Answer the following questions based on the film you watched.
1. Describe the main character in the movie you watched.
2. What was his/her exceptionality? Describe.
3. What problems/difficulties did the main character experience?
4. Who provided support? What support did he/she get from his/her environment?
Explain

From the movie you watched you saw the challenges that confront a person
with special needs. The person’s adjustment entails the support of the people around
him. As a future teacher, you would probably encounter learners with special needs,
more so if special education is your major. It is therefore necessary that you have both
the right information and proper attitude in dealing with special learners. This well
help you perform your task to facilitate learning.

Let us begin by differentiating the words disability and handicap.

Disability. It is a measurable impairment or limitation that “interferes with a person’s

ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. It may refer to physical, sensory, or
mental condition” (Shiefelbusch Institute). The word disability has become the more
accepted term, having replaced the word handicap in federal laws in the US, one of
which is the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA is the law that
provides comprehensive service and support for exceptional learners. Our very own
1987 Philippine Constitution, Article XIV, Sec. 2, uses the word “disabled” in
paragraph (5) “Provide adult citizens, the disabled, and out-of-school youth with
training.
Handicap. The word handicap does not have the same meaning as disability. A
handicap is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. The
degree of disadvantage (or the extent of the handicap) is often dependent on the
adjustment made by both the person and his environment. Therefore, the extent to
which a disability handicaps an individual can vary greatly. Two persons may have
the same disability but not the same degree of being handicapped. For example, they
both have a hearing impairment, one knows sign language and can read lips while the
other cannot. The first individual would not have as much handicap as the second one.

Categories of Exceptionalities

There are different ways of presenting categories of exceptionalities. For this

short introduction of categories, we are basing it on the categories found in Omrod’s
Educational Psychology (2000).

Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties

Learning Disabilities. It involves difficulties in specific cognitive processes like

perception, language, memory, or metacognition that are not due to other disabilities
like mental retardation, emotional or behavioral disorders, or sensory impairments.
Examples include dyslexia (reading), dyscalculia (number operations) and dysgraphia
(writing).
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. ADHD is manifested in either or both of
these: (1) difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and (2) recurrent
hyperactive and impulsive behavior.
Speech and Communication Disorders. There is difficulty in spoken language
including voice disorders, inability to produce the sounds… correctly, stuttering,
difficulty in spoken language comprehension that significantly hamper classroom
performance.

Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

Autism. It is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction

and communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interests. Individuals with
autism usually have an intense need for routine and a predictable environment.
Mental Retardation. It refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in
adaptive behavior. There is difficulty in managing activities of daily living and in
conducting themselves appropriately in social situations.
Emotional/Conduct Disorders. This involves the presence of emotional states like
depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they notably
disturb learning and performance in school.

Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments

Physical and health impairments. This involves physical or medical conditions

(usually long-term) including one or more of these: (1) limited energy and strength,
(2) reduced mental alertness, and/or (3) little muscle control.
Severe and Multiple Disabilities. This refers to the presence of two or more different
types of disability, at times at a profound level. The combination of disabilities makes
it necessary to make specific adaptations and have more specialized educational
programs.

Sensory Impairments

Visual Impairments. These are conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes or
optic nerves that prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses.
Hearing Impairments. These involve malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that
hinders perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech.

Giftedness

Giftedness. This involves a significantly high level of cognitive development. There

is unusually high ability or aptitude in one or more of these aspects: intellectual
ability, aptitude in academic subjects, creativity, visual or performing arts or
leadership.

People-First Language

This language trend involves putting the person first, not the disability (e.g., a person
with a disability, not a disabled person). Thus, people-first language tells us what
conditions people have, not what they are (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). This is
similar to saying “person with AIDS, rather than “AIDS victim”. Other suggestions
for referring to those with disabilities include:
• Avoiding generic labels (people with mental retardation is preferable to the mentally
retarded)
• Emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a wheelchair is preferrable
to confined to a wheelchair)
• Avoiding euphemisms (such as physically-challenged) which are regarded as
condescending and avoid the real issues that result from a disability
• Avoiding implying illness or suffering (had polio is preferrable to is a polio victim,
and has multiple sclerosis is preferrable to suffers from multiple sclerosis)
(Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 2000; Schiefelbusch Institute,
1996).

Elaborate

The lesson highlights the critical distinction between "disability" and

"handicap," emphasizing that disability refers to measurable impairments that affect
an individual's ability to perform certain tasks, while handicap denotes the
disadvantages that arise from those disabilities, which can vary based on personal and
environmental factors. This understanding is essential for educators, particularly those
specializing in special education, as they will likely encounter learners with diverse
needs.
The categories of exceptionalities, as outlined, provide a framework for
identifying and understanding various cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and physical
challenges that students may face. Recognizing specific conditions such as learning
disabilities, ADHD, autism, and sensory impairments allows educators to tailor their
approaches and support mechanisms effectively, ensuring that all students have the
opportunity to succeed. The concept of people-first language is crucial in fostering a
respectful and empowering environment for individuals with disabilities. By
emphasizing the person before the disability, educators can promote a more inclusive
and positive atmosphere that values the abilities and potential of all learners.
Possessing the right information and a compassionate attitude towards students with
special needs is imperative for future educators. This knowledge not only facilitates
effective teaching practices but also helps in cultivating a supportive learning
environment where every student can thrive and reach their full potential.
Evaluate

Revise the following sentences to adhere to the people-first language and the other
guidelines given in this lesson.

1.The teacher thought of many strategies to teach the mentally challenged.

2.Their brother is mentally retarded.
3.Their organization is for the autistic.
4. He is a polio victim who currently suffers from post-polio syndrome.
5.There was a blind girl in my psychology class.
REFERENCES:
Cornett, C. E. (1983). What you should know about teaching and learning styles.
Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. Retrieved as of
February 11, 2025
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED228235
Chambel, T. & Guimarães, N. (2009). Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences. In
P. Rogers, G. Berg, J. Boettcher, C. Howard, L. Justice, & K. Schenk
(Eds.), Encyclopedia of Distance Learning, Second Edition (pp. 1369-1379).
IGI Global Scientific Publishing. Retrieved as of February 11, 2025
https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60566-198-8.ch196
Smith, J. (2023, March 15). Understanding Learning Styles. CourseKick. Retrieved as
of February 11, 2025
https://www.coursesidekick.com/psychology/13845061
Toronto Catholic District School Board. (n.d.). Updated Categories of
Exceptionalities. Retrieved as of February 11, 2025
https://tcdsbpublishing.escribemeetings.com/filestream.ashx?
DocumentId=8873
 Republic of the Philippines
ABRA STATE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
Bangued Campus
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
AY: 2024-2025

Behaviorist Perspective

Objectives

By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

a. Explain classical conditioning and how it was discovered by Ivan Pavlov.

b. Identify stimuli and responses in conditioning.
c. Apply behaviorist principles to real-life situations.

ENGAGE

Activity: "What Triggers Your Behavior?"

 Bring a bag of chips or a citrus fruit and start opening it in front of the class.

 Ask students: "How do you feel? Are you starting to crave food? Why?"

 Explain that their reaction is an example of how associations shape behavior—

just like Pavlov’s dogs.

EXPLORE

Activity: Mini Pavlov Experiment (Group Work)

🔔 Materials: Small treats (candy, stickers, or points), a bell (or a clap sound)

·Divide students into groups of 4-5.

Assign one student as the “Trainer” and the rest as “Learners.”

The Trainer will clap hands or ring a bell, then immediately give a treat
or point.
 Repeat this 5-7 times.

After the repetition, the Trainer should clap/ring the bell without giving
the treat.

Did anyone feel like they were expecting a treat even without receiving
it?"

"What does this remind you of?"

"How do animals and even humans learn behaviors through repeated

experiences?"

EXPLAIN

Behaviorist theory focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. It

emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement
(rewards and punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind and the
possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind. Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike,
and Skinner contributed largely to the development of the behaviorist theory.

Pavlovian Conditioning Theory

The name Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) rings a bell within the context of the association
theory in behaviorism. Pavlov was a Russian physiologist, who, out of association
theory in behaviorism. Pavlov was a Russian physiologist, who, out of serendipity,
discovered classical conditioning. In 1904, he won the Nobel Prize for his serendipity
and discovered classical conditioning. In 1904, he won the Nobel Prize for his
outstanding studies on the physiology of digestion. He spent the g studies on the
physiology of digestion. He spent the rest of his life as an association theorist. rest of
his life studying the reflexes of dogs, which led him to the discovery of classical
conditioning.

The theory of Pavlovian conditioning ng involves a involves a set of multilayered

procedures. Initially, the food is called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). In
psychology, any environmental event that affects the organism is called red procedure
procedures. the environmental event that affects the organism is called a stimulus. The
food is an unconditioned stimulus to an unconditioned response (UCR), without any
learning taking place. The immediate salivation of a dog is referred to as the UCR.
The UCS and UCR take place. The immediate salivation of a dog is referred to as the
UCR. The UCS and UCR are considered unlearned stimulus-response units termed as
are considered unlearned stimulus-response units termed as reflexes. Conditioning the
dog requires recurrent presentation of a neutral stimulus with Conditioning the dog
requires recurrent presentation of a neutral stimulus with the UCS. For instance, the
UCS. For instance, the buzzer was sounded repeatedly but caused no dog’s salivation
buzzer was sounded repeatedly but caused no dog’s salivation at all. However, when
the buzzer came with the food, the dog salivated. Later, by just at all. However, when
the buzzer came with the food, the dog salivated. Later, by just hearing the buzzer, the
dog salivated. The buzzer is now called a hearing the buzzer, and the dog salivated.
The buzzer is now called a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits the salivation of the
dog, now termed as a (CS) that elicits the salivation of the dog, now termed as a
conditioned response (CR).

Pavlov also had the following findings:

Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of

Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of

the bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds.

Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually

salivation will cease in response to the bell.

Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an

Extinguished response can be “recovered” after an elapsed time, but will soon
extinguish elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented
with food.

Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar similar bells
bells

(stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food which would
(stimuli) and which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.

Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the

bell with the food another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at

the same time the bell is rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the
light

without the sound of the bell.

ELABORATE

Activity: "Behaviorism in Real Life"

 Students work in pairs or small groups to find examples of classical

conditioning in daily life.

EVALUATE

1. Who is considered the father of classical conditioning?

A) B.F. Skinner
B) John Watson
C) Ivan Pavlov
D) Albert Bandura

Answer: C) Ivan Pavlov

2. In Pavlov’s experiment, the dog’s salivation to food was an example of a:

A) Conditioned stimulus (CS)

B) Unconditioned response (UCR)
C) Neutral stimulus (NS)
D) Conditioned response (CR)

Answer: B) Unconditioned response (UCR)

3. In Pavlov’s experiment, the sound of the bell eventually became a:

A) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

B) Neutral stimulus (NS)
C) Conditioned response (CR)
D) Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Answer: D) Conditioned stimulus (CS)

4. What is the process of learning through associations called?

A) Observational learning
B) Classical conditioning
C) Operant conditioning
D) Social learning
Answer: B) Classical conditioning

5. Which of the following is an example of classical conditioning in real life?

A) A student is rewarded with extra credit for answering questions correctly.

B) A dog learns to sit on command after being rewarded with a treat.
C) A child feels anxious when they hear the sound of a dentist’s drill.
D) A student studies harder after receiving praise from their teacher.

Answer: C) A child feels anxious when they hear the sound of a dentist’s drill.

6. In Pavlov's experiment, food was the:

A) Conditioned stimulus (CS)

B) Neutral stimulus (NS)
C) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
D) Conditioned response (CR)

Answer: C) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

7. After several pairings of the bell and food, the dog began salivating just at the
sound of the bell. This response is called a:

A) Neutral response (NR)

B) Conditioned response (CR)
C) Unconditioned response (UCR)
D) Reflexive response (RR)

Answer: B) Conditioned response (CR)

8. In classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus

after it is paired with the:

A) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

B) Conditioned response (CR)
C) Unconditioned response (UCR)
D) Reflexive response (RR)

Answer: A) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

9. Which of the following is an example of extinction in classical conditioning?

A) The bell is no longer followed by food, and the dog stops salivating to the bell.
B) A child is repeatedly praised for good behavior and continues to perform well.
C) A teacher continues to give quizzes at random times in class.
D) A dog is conditioned to bark at the doorbell and then trained to stop.

Answer: A) The bell is no longer followed by food, and the dog stops salivating to
the bell.

10. What term describes the phenomenon in which a conditioned response is

triggered by stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus?

A) Generalization
B) Discrimination
C) Extinction
D) Spontaneous recovery

Answer: A) Generalization

Republic of the Philippines

ABRA STATE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
 Bangued Campus
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
AY: 2024-2025

WATSON AND SKINNER

Objectives

A. Identify and describe how classical and operant conditioning are used to
modify a person’s behavior.
B. Analyze the influence of conditioning on human behavior.
C. Apply the theories of classical and operant conditioning to real-world
educational
D. Scenarios

Engage

"Imagine you're a teacher in a classroom, and a student refuses to participate in class

discussions. What strategies could you use to change this behavior? How might
conditioning be at play here?"

Explore

Click the link below and watch the video. After watching it, share your observation
about the child’s behavior towards the situation.

https://youtu.be/7FC4qRD1vn8?si=sSp5HfzQDqsZ60g7

Explain
 JOHN B. WATSON

John B. Watson was the first american psychologist to work with Pavlov’s
ideas. He too, was initially involved in animal studies, then later became involved in
human behavior research.

He considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional
reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is learned through stimulus-response
associations through conditioning. He believed in the power of conditioning so much
that he said if he is given a dozen healthy infants he can make them into anything you
want them to be, basically through making stimulus-response connections through
conditioning.

Experiment on Albert

First, he completed experiments with eight-month old Albert and later he

applied his theory when raising his own children. In essence, he applied the scientific
method to human psychology which he called behaviorism.
With the little Albert experiment, Watson used the method of classical
conditioning to program a baby to be afraid of a lab rat. Pavlov demostrated how
conditioning can trigger biological responses that are inherited genetically. Watson
hypothesized that we can also instill new behaviors that were not inherited.
To conduct the experiment, Watson and his assistant Rosalie Rayner placed
the boy in a room where a white rat was allowed to roam around. First, the boy
showed no fear. Then, Rayner struck a steel bar with a hammer every time Albert
reached out to touch the rat, scaring Albert and causing him to cry. Eventually, Albert
tried to get away from the rat showing that he had been conditioned to fear the rat.
Weeks later, Albert showed distress towards any furry object showing that his
conditioning had not only been sustained but also generalized. Watson assumed that
our behavior is either a reflex evoked by a stimulus or a consequence of our
individual history of earlier exposure to reinforcements and punishments paired with
our current motivational states and stimuli.

How Little Albert experiment relates to student learning:

1. Emotional Responses can be conditioned

Just as Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat, students can develop
negative emotional responses to certain subjects, teachers, or learning environments.
For instance, a student who has a negative experience with public speaking might
develop a fear of presenting in class. This fear can then generalize to other situations
involving public speaking or even classroom participation in general.

2. Association and Generalization

 In the experiment, Little Albert's fear of the white rat generalized to other
similar objects. Similarly, a student who has a bad experience with a particular
science concept might develop a dislike for all science-related subjects. This
generalization can hinder their learning and overall academic performance.

3. The Role of Environment

Watson believed that environment plays a crucial role in shaping behavior. In
a classroom setting, the environment includes not just the physical space but also the
teacher's attitude, the teaching methods used, and the interactions with peers. A
negative or stressful learning environment can lead to conditioned emotional
responses that impede learning.

Surely, Watson’s research methods would be questioned today; nevertheless,

his work did clearly show the role of conditioning in the development of emotional
responses to certain stimuli. This may help us understand the fears, phobias and
prejudices that people develop.
By understanding how emotional responses can be conditioned, educators can
create a learning environment that minimizes negative experiences and promotes
positive emtional associations with learning.

BURRHUS FREDERICK SKINNER

He believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior.

Skinner’s work differs from that of the other behaviorists before him, in that he
studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment).
Thus, is theory came to be known as Operant Conditioning.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s Stimulus-Response theory. A
reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. Skinner believed that
organisms are doing what they do naturally until they accidentally encounter a
stimulus that creates conditioning which results in a change in behavior. To test this,
he placed a rat inside an operant conditioning chamber, which later became known as
the Skinner Box.

Skinner Box
Among other things inside the box was a lever that would release food when
pressed. Conditioning happens in a three-term contigency today known as the ABCs
of behavior.
 A stands for antecedent. The rat accidentally hits the lever that triggers the
release of food.
 B stands for behavior and refers to the response. The rat keeps pressing the
lever.
  C stands for consequence. Food keeps coming out.

Operant conditioning is based on the idea that we can increase or decrease a

certain behavior by adding a consequence.
B.F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning focuses on how behaviors are
learned and modified through their consequences. The core idea is that behaviors
followed by positive reinforcement are more likely to be repeated, while those
followed by punishment are less likely to occur. Key concepts include:
 Positive Reinforcement: Presenting a desirable stimulus after a behavior,
increasing the likelihood of the behavior's repetition.
 Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus after a
behavior, increasing the likelihood of the behavior's repetition.
 Punishment: Presenting an aversive stimulus or removing a desirable
stimulus after a behavior, decreasing the likelihood of the behavior's
repetition.
 Extinction: Withholding reinforcement for a previously reinforced
behavior, leading to a decrease in the behavior's frequency.

Skinner believed that learning is a continuous process of shaping behaviors

through these consequences, and his work has significantly influenced the
development of educational practices.

B.F. Skinner's work continues to have a profound impact on education,

providing a framework for understanding how learning occurs and how to create
effective learning environments. By applying his principles of reinforcement,
designing engaging experiences, and adapting instruction to individual needs,
educators can empower students to take ownership of their learning, develop their
skills, and reach their full potential. Skinner's legacy encourages us to create
classrooms that are dynamic, responsive, and focused on fostering student growth and
success.

Elaborate
Both Watson’s and Skinner’s theories have direct applications in the
classroom. Watson’s work shows how emotional responses can be conditioned,
leading to fears and anxieties that could hinder student learning. For example, a
student who associates public speaking with embarrassment or failure may avoid
participating in class altogether. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory offers methods
for shaping behavior through reinforcement and punishment. Educators can use
positive reinforcement to encourage active participation or use negative reinforcement
to reduce disruptive behaviors. Ultimately, both behaviorists emphasized the
importance of the learning environment in shaping student behavior and emotional
responses. By understanding how conditioning works, educators can create
environments that foster positive emotional associations with learning and help
students overcome fears or anxieties that may hinder their academic success.

Evaluate
Direction:
Write WATSON if the statement describes John B. Watson’s theory, and SKINNER
if the theory being described belongs to B.F Skinner’s.

SKINNER 1. Conditioning happens in a three-term contigency today known as the

ABCs of behavior.

SKINNER 2. Voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment.

WATSON 3. He believed in the power of conditioning so much that he said if he is

given a dozen healthy infants he can make them into anything you want them to be.

SKINNER 4. Skinner Box

WATSON 5. Experiment on Albert

WATSON 6. The role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to

certain stimuli.

SKINNER 7. Learning is a continuous process of shaping behaviors through these

consequences, and his work has significantly influenced the development of
educational practices.

SKINNER 8. Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, Punishment, and

Extinction.

WATSON 9. Emotional Responses can be conditioned, Association and

Generalization, and The Role of Environment.

SKINNER 10. Operant conditioning.

REFERENCES:
Watson’s Theory of Behaviorism, https://sproutsschools.com/watsons-theory-of-
behaviourism/
B.F Skinner’s Operant Conditioning, https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-
conditioning.html
 Republic of the Philippines
ABRA STATE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
Bangued Campus
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
AY: 2024-2025

Neobehaviorism: Tolman and Bandura

Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Explain the key concepts of Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism and Bandura’s

Social Learning Theory;
2. Develop an appreciation for the role of cognitive processes in shaping
behavior and learning;
3. Demonstrate learned behaviors through simple actions.

Engage

“How can Watson’s and Skinner’s theories be used to change or improve student
behavior and emotional responses in the classroom?”

Reflect on how Watson’s and Skinner’s theories can improve student behavior
and emotional responses in the classroom. Think about how emotions can be
conditioned (Watson) and how reinforcement can shape behavior (Skinner).

Explore
 "What we learn comes from both doing and observing."

From the quotation, 'What we learn comes from both doing and observing,'
think about your own experiences. How have you learned something new by either
directly doing it or by watching someone else? Consider how this relates to behavior
and learning in the classroom, and reflect on how these processes might influence
student behavior and engagement.

Explain
Neobehaviorism: Tolman and Bandura

Neobehaviorism is an extension of traditional behaviorism that incorporates

cognitive and physiological factors into the study of behavior while still focusing on
observable actions. Unlike strict behaviorism, which only considers external stimuli
and responses, neobehaviorism acknowledges the importance of internal processes,
such as expectations, motivations, and physiological states, in influencing behavior. It
bridges the gap between the stimulus-response model and the cognitive perspective by
exploring how mental processes like thinking and problem-solving can affect
behavior, but it still emphasizes empirical observation and experimentation.
There are two theories reflecting neobehaviorism that stands. Albert
Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism and Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory.
Both theories are influenced by behaviorism(which is focused on external elements in
learning), but their principles seem to also be reflective of thecognitive perspective
(focused on more internal elements).

TOLMAN’S PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM

Purposive behaviorism has also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory
and is often seen as the link between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman's
theory was founded on two psychological views: those of the Gestalt psychologists
and those of John Watson, the behaviorist. Tolman believed that learning is a
cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about
the environment and then revealing that knowledge through purposeful and goal-
directed behavior. Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by
pursuing signs to a goal, i.e., learning is acquired through meaningful behavior. He
stressed the organized aspect of learning: "The stimuli which are allowed in are not
connected by just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the
incoming impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control room
into a tentative cognitive-like map of the environment. And it is this tentative map,
indicating routes and paths and environmental relationships, which finally determines
what responses, if any, the animal will finally make."
Tolman‘s form of behaviorism stressed the relationships between stimuli
rather than stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (the sign) becomes
associated with already meaningful stimulus(the significate) through a series of
pairings; there is no need for reinforcement in order to establish learning.
TOLMAN’S KEY CONCEPTS
Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. Tolman asserted that learning
is always purposive and goal-directed. He held the notion that an organism acted or
responded for some adaptive purpose. He believed individuals do more than merely
respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive
toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic, purposive and cognitive.

Cognitive Maps in Rats

In his most famous experiment, one group of rats was placed at random
starting locations in a maze but the food was always in the same location. Another
group of rats had the food placed in different locations which always required exactly
the same pattern of turns from their starting location. The group that had the food in
the same location performed much better than the other group, supposedly
demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a specific sequence of
turns. This is tendency to “learn location” signified that rats somehow formed
cognitive maps that help them perform well on the maze. He also found out that
organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal. He also found out
that organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve
a goal. Applied in human learning, since a student passes by the same route going to s
chool every day, heacquires a cognitive map of the location of his school. So when
transportation re-routing is done, he can still figure out what turns to make to get
to the shortest or easiest way.

Latent Learning
Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual
until needed. It is learning that is not outwardly manifested at once. According to
Tolman it can exist even without reinforcement. He demonstrated this in his rat
experiments wherein apparently “learned the maze” by forming cognitive maps of the
maze but manifested this knowledge of the maze only when they needed to.
Applied in human learning, a two-year old always sees her dad operate the TV
remote control and observes how the TV. is turned on or how channel is changed, and
volume adjusted. After sometime, the parents are surprised that on the first time that
their daughter holds the remote Control, she already knows which buttons to press for
what function. Through latent learning, the child knew the skills beforehand, even
though she has never done them before.

The Concept of Intervening Variable

Intervening variables are variables that are not readily seen but serve as
determinants of behavior, Tolman believed that learning is influence by expectations,
perceptions, representations, needs
and other internal or environmental variables. Example, in his experiments with rats
he found out that hunger was an intervening variable.
Reinforcement Not Essential for Learning
Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it
provides incentive for performance. In his studies, ‘he observed that a rat was able to
acquire knowledge of the way through a maze, i.e., develop a cognitive map, even in
the absence of reinforcement.

ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Social learning theory focuses on the learning occurs within a
social context. It considers thatpeople learn from one another, including such concepts
as observable learning, imitation and modeling. The ten-year old boy Sergio Pelico
did watch Saddam’s execution on TV and then must have imitated it.
Among others, Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of this
theory.

General Principles of Social Learning Theory

1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those
behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say learning has to
be represented by apermanent change in behavior, in contrast in social learning
theorists say that because people canlearn through observation alone, their learning
may not necessarily be shown in their performance.Learning may or may not result in
a behavior change.
3.Cognition plays a Role in learning. Over the last 30 years, social learning theory
has become
increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning. Awareness and
expectations of futurereinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on the
behaviors that people exhibit.
3. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between
behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories

Bobo doll experiment

Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment demonstrated the power of

observational learning. In this study, children were divided into groups to observe
adult models interacting with an inflatable Bobo doll. One group saw adults behaving
aggressively toward the doll, another observed non-aggressive interactions, and a
control group saw no model. The results showed that children imitated the behavior
they observed: those exposed to aggressive models exhibited similar aggressive
behaviors, while those who saw non-aggressive interactions were less likely to act
aggressively. The study also found that the imitation was stronger if the model was
rewarded. This experiment highlighted that behavior can be learned through
observation alone, without direct experience or reinforcement, underscoring the
importance of role models in shaping behavior.
Four Stages of Observational Learning

1. Attention: Observing a model's behavior.

2. Retention: Remembering what was observed.
3. Reproduction: Physically and mentally reproducing the behavior.
4. Motivation: Having a reason (reward or desire) to imitate the behavior.

Elaborate

Tolman’s and Bandura’s theories provide important insights into how we

understand and shape behavior in the classroom. Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism
suggests that learning is not just a simple response to stimuli but a purposeful, goal-
directed process, where students form mental maps of their environment and act to
achieve their objectives. This can be applied in the classroom by creating learning
experiences that allow students to see the connection between their efforts and their
goals. For example, when students are given problem-solving tasks that require them
to think critically, they can build cognitive maps that help them navigate their learning
and make more informed decisions.

On the other hand, Bandura’s Social Learning Theory emphasizes the

importance of observational learning, where students learn by watching the behavior
of others. This is particularly relevant in classroom settings where teachers and peers
serve as role models. Bandura’s theory also highlights self-efficacy, or the belief in
one’s ability to succeed, which is crucial in a learning environment. Educators can
foster self-efficacy by demonstrating positive behaviors and providing
encouragement, thus motivating students to imitate those behaviors and develop
confidence in their own abilities. By combining these theories, educators can create an
environment where students are not only encouraged to learn from their experiences
but also from the social interactions that influence their learning and emotional
development.

Evaluate

For each statement, read carefully and determine whether it aligns with the
concepts of Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism or Bandura’s Social Learning Theory.
Mark each statement as True or False based on your understanding of the theories.

1. False: Tolman believed that reinforcement is not essential for learning,

although it may influence performance.

2. False: Bandura’s Social Learning Theory emphasizes observational learning

and cognitive processes, not direct reinforcement as the primary factor in learning.

3. False: According to Tolman, learning involves cognitive processes and is not

just a simple stimulus-response pattern.
 4. True: Bandura’s concept of observational learning suggests that people can
learn behaviors through observation alone, without direct reinforcement.

5. True: Tolman’s theory is considered a bridge between behaviorism and

cognitive psychology due to its focus on internal cognitive processes such as
mental maps and beliefs.

6. False: According to Bandura, motivation is an essential component of learning,

influencing whether observed behaviors will be imitated.

7. False: Latent learning, as explained by Tolman, occurs even without immediate

reinforcement and may not be visible until needed.

8. False: Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment demonstrated that children who

observed aggressive behavior were more likely to exhibit similar aggressive
behaviors, not less.

9. False: According to Tolman, cognitive maps are not learned through direct
reinforcement, but through experience and understanding of the environment.

10. True: Bandura argued that observational learning requires attention, retention,
reproduction, and motivation for effective learning.

11. True: Tolman’s intervening variables include internal states like beliefs,
expectations, and needs that influence behavior and learning.

12. False: Bandura’s theory actually emphasizes the importance of modeling

behavior, not just internal cognitive processes.

13. True: Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism asserts that behavior is goal-directed

and influenced by cognitive maps and internal expectations.

14. False: Bandura’s Social Learning Theory emphasizes the impact of role
models and observational learning on behavior.

15. True: According to Bandura, self-efficacy plays a crucial role in an individual's

ability to learn and perform new behaviors by influencing their motivation and effort.
References:

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, April 12). stimulus-response theory.

Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/stimulus-response-
theory

Abangan, E. (2017). Module 8 Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura

INTRODUCTION. www.academia.edu.
https://www.academia.edu/34757010/Module_8_Neo_Behaviorism_Tolman_and_Ba
ndura_INTRODUCTION

Importance of Behaviorism and Neobehaviorism - 1012 words | Bartleby. (n.d.).

https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Importance-Of-Behaviorism-And-Neobehaviorism-
F35A7LPWQ4F

Gorgmean, A. (2017, December 5). NEO BEHAVIORISM: TOLMAN AND

BANDURA. Maryanndelaxestrella.
https://maryanndelaxestrella.wordpress.com/2017/12/05/neo-behaviorism-tolman-
and-bandura/
 Republic of the Philippines
ABRA STATE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
Bangued Campus
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
AY: 2024-2025

Cognitive Perspective

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson student should be able to:

A. Describe the different gestalts principles.
B. Understand the importance of Gestalt Psychology in teaching-learning
process.
C. Provide insights on Gestalt Psychology.

Explain
Cognitive Perspective: Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt psychology was the forefront of cognitive psychology. It serves as the

foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning. It opposed the external and
mechanistic focus of behaviorism. It considered the mental process and product of
perception. Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism, it
emphasized the importance of sensory wholes and dynamic nature of visual
perception. The term Gestalt, means “form” or configuration.” Psychologists Max
Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka, studied perception and conclude that
perceivers (or learners) were not passive but rather active. They suggested that
learners do not just collect information as is but they actively process and restructure
data in order to understand it. This the perceptual process. Certain factor impact in
this perceptual process. Factors like past experience, needs attitude and one’s present
situation can affect his perception.

According to Gestalt Psychologist, the way we form our perception are guided
by certain principles or laws. These principles or law determine what see or make
things or situation we meet.

Gestalt Principle

Law of Proximity. Elements that are closer together will be perceived as a

coherent object. When object we are perceiving are near each other, we perceive them
as a belonging together.
 Law of Similarity. Elements that look similar will be perceived as part of the
same form. We link similar elements together.
Law of closure. We tend to feel the gaps or ‘close’ the figure we perceive. We
enclose space by completing a contour and ignoring gaps in the figure.

Law of good Continuation. Individual have the tendency to continue

contours whenever the elements of the pattern establish an implied direction. People
trend to draw a good continuous line.

Law of Good Pragnanz. The stimulus will be organized into as good a figure
as possible. Based on our experiences with perception, we ‘expect’ certain patterns
and therefore perceived the expected pattern.

Law of figure Ground. We lead to pay attention and perceive things on the
foreground first. A stimulus will be perceived as separate from its ground.

Gestalt Principle and the Teaching and Learning Process

The six gestalten not only influence perception but they also impact on
learning. Other psychologist like Kurt Lewin, expounded on gestalt psychology. His
theory focusing on “life space” to adhere to gestalt psychology. He said that an
individual has inner and outer forces that affect his perception and also his learning.
Inner forces include his own motivation, attitudes and feelings. Outer forces may
include the attitude and behavior of the teacher and classmate. All these forces
interact and impact on the persons learning.
Mario Polito, an Italian psychologist writes about the relevance of gestalt
psychology to education. Gestalt theory is focused on the experience to the contact
that occurs in the here and now. It considers with interest the life space of teachers as
well as students. It takes interest in the in the complexity of experience, without
neglecting anything but accepting and simplifying all that emerge. It stimulates
learning as experience and the experience as a source learning. It appreciates the
affections and meanings that we attribute to what we learn. Knowledge is conceived
as a continuous organization and rearrangement of information according to needs,
purpose and meaning. It asserts that the learning is not accumulation, but remodeling
or insight. Autonomy and freedom of a student is stimulated by the teacher. The time
necessary for assimilation and for cognitive and existential remodeling is respected.
The contact experience between teacher and student is given value an authentic
meeting as based on sharing ideas and affection.
 Republic of the Philippines
ABRA STATE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
Bangued Campus
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
AY: 2024-2025

INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

I. OBJECTIVES
By the end of the discussion, the students are expected to attain the
following objectives.
A.) Define what is information processing theory
B.) Discuss the types of knowledge, primary and main stages of IPT
C.) Create a concept map illustrating the stages of Information Processing
Theory

II. SUBJECT MATTER

A. Topic: Information Processing Theory
B. Reference/s:https://www.scribd.com/document/550932003/
Module-10-Facilitating-Learner-Centered-Teaching
C. Materials: PowerPoint Presentation,
D. Strategy: 3 Es (Engage, Explain, Evaluate)

ENGAGE

1.How do you think our brains process and store information when we
learn something new?

2. Why do we sometimes remember certain things easily while forgetting others

quickly?

3. What strategies do you use to help yourself remember important information

for exams or daily life?

EXPLAIN
Introduction

What is Information Processing Theory?

 Information processing theory describes how the learners receive information
(stimuli) from the environment through the senses and takes place in between
determines whether the information will continue to pass through the sensory
register then the short-term memory and the long term memory. Certain
factors would also determine whether the information will be retrieved or
remembered when the learner needs it.

TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

•General vs. Specific - this involves whether the knowledge is useful in many
tasks, or only in one.

•Declarative- this refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how
things are. They may be in the form of a word or an image.
Example: are your name address a nursery rhyme the definition of IPT or even
the face of your crush.

•Procedural- this includes knowledge on how to do things.

Example: include making a lesson plan, baking a cake, or getting the least
common denominator.

•Episodic- this includes memories of life events like your high school graduation.

•Conditional- this is about knowing when and why to apply declarative or

procedural strategies.

STAGES IN THE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

- the stages of information processing theory involve the functioning of the senses
sensory register short term memory and the long-term memory. Basically,
information processing theory asserts three primary stages in the progression of
external information becoming on incorporated into the internal cognitive
structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame, and mental model).

THREE PRIMARY STAGES IN INFORMATION PROCESSING

THEORY ARE:

1.Encoding- information is sensed perceived and attended to.

2.Storage- the information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time,
depending upon the process following encoding.
 3.Retrieval- the information is brought back at the appropriate time and
reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.

MAIN STAGES OF INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

1.SENSORY REGISTER
-the first step in the information processing model holds all sensory information
for a very brief time.
•Capacity- our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than
what our minds can hold or perceive.
•Duration- the sensory register only holds the information for an extremely brief
period in the order of 1 to 3 seconds.
•The role of retention
-to bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give attention to
it. Such that, we can only perceive and remember later those things that pass
through our attention gate.
-getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is interested in the
material, when there is conscious control over attention or when information
involves novelty surprise salience and distinctiveness.
-before information is perceived it is known as pre categorical information this
means that until that point the learner established a determination of the
categorical membership of information.

2.SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM or WORKING MEMORY)

•Capacity- the short-term memory can only hold 5 to 9 “chunks” of information,
sometimes describes as 7 + / - 2. It is called working memory because it is where
new information is temporarily place while it is mentally processed. Short term
memory maintains information for a limited time, until the learner has adequate
resources to process the information or until the information is forgotten.
•Duration- around 18 seconds or less. To reduce the loss of information in 18
seconds, you need to do maintenance rehearsal. It is using repetition to keep the
information active in short term memory, like when you repeat a phone number
just given over and over.

3.LONG-TERM MEMORY
-the long-term memory is the final or permanent storing house for memory
information. It holds the stored information until needed again.
• Capacity- long term memory has unlimited capacity.
•Duration- duration in the long-term memory is indefinite.

EXECUTIVE CONTROL PROCESS

-involve the executive processor or what is referred as metacognitive skills, these
processes guide the flow of information through the system, help the learners make
inform decision. About how to categorize organize or interpret information. Example
processes are attention rehearsals and organization.

FORGETTING
-is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed.
There are two main ways in forgetting likely occurs:
•Decay- information is not attended to and eventually fades away very prevalent in
working memory.
•Interference- new or old information blocks access to the information in
question.

METHODS FOR INCREASING RETRIEVAL OF INFORMATION

•Visual imagery- this means forming a picture of information.
•Generation- things we produce are easier to remember than things we hear.
•Personalization- it is making the information relevant to the individual.
•Serial Position Effects- recency and primacy you will remember the beginning
and end of least most readily.
•Part Learning - break up the list or chunk information to increase memorization.
•Distributed Practice- break up learning sessions rather than cramming all the
info in at once.
•Mnemonic Aids- these are memory techniques that learners may employ to help
them retain and retrieve information more effectively. This includes the loci technique
acronyms sentence construction peg world and association techniques among others.

Information Processing Theory (IPT) explains how humans receive, process, store,
and retrieve information, similar to a computer. This theory has several key
implications for education, influencing teaching methods, curriculum design, and
student learning strategies.

IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION

1.Enhancing Attention and Perception

Since learning starts with attention, teachers should use strategies to capture and
maintain students’ focus (e.g., visual aids, storytelling, and interactive activities).

Reducing distractions in the learning environment helps students process information

effectively.

2.Improving Working Memory Capacity

Breaking complex information into smaller chunks (chunking) enhances memory

retention.
Using mnemonic devices, concept maps, and repetition reinforces learning.

Limiting cognitive load by avoiding information overload allows better processing.

3.Strengthening Long-Term Memory Storage

Connecting new knowledge with prior knowledge (scaffolding) enhances

understanding.

Engaging students in active learning (problem-solving, discussions, and application-

based tasks) improves retention.

Encouraging elaborative rehearsal (explaining concepts in different ways) strengthens

long-term memory.

4.Encouraging Meaningful Learning Over Rote Memorization

Teaching students to use metacognitive strategies (e.g., self-questioning,

summarization) fosters deeper understanding.

Conceptual learning, rather than just memorizing facts, ensures better knowledge
transfer to real-world situations.

5.Using Technology to Enhance Learning

Multimedia tools (videos, simulations, interactive software) help present information

in engaging and diverse formats.

Adaptive learning technologies personalize instruction based on individual student

needs.

6.Providing Immediate and Constructive Feedback

Feedback helps students correct mistakes and reinforce correct knowledge.

Timely and specific feedback enhances learning efficiency.

7.Supporting Self-Regulated Learning

Encouraging students to set goals, monitor progress, and adjust strategies improves
independent learning.

Teaching study skills and time management supports lifelong learning habits.

Conclusion

By applying Information Processing Theory, educators can create more effective

instructional strategies, ensuring students process and retain knowledge efficiently.
Teaching methods should focus on improving attention, memory retention, and
meaningful learning to maximize student success.

EVALUATE:
ACTIVITY:
Create a concept map illustrating the stages of Information Processing Theory

QUIZ:

1. What is the first stage of Information Processing Theory?

A) Storage
B) Retrieval
C) Encoding
D) Perception
Answer: C) Encoding

2. Which memory system holds sensory information for a very brief period?
A) Short-term memory
B) Sensory register
C) Long-term memory
D) Working memory
Answer: B) Sensory register
3. What is the average capacity of short-term memory, as suggested by George
Miller?
A) 3 ± 1 items
B) 5 ± 2 items
C) 7 ± 2 items
D) 10 ± 3 items
Answer: C) 7 ± 2 items

4. What type of knowledge refers to factual information, such as names, dates, and
definitions?
A) Procedural knowledge
B) Episodic knowledge
C) Declarative knowledge
D) Conditional knowledge
Answer: C) Declarative knowledge

5. Which of the following strategies helps improve the retrieval of information?

A) Cramming information in one session
B) Distributed practice
C) Ignoring prior knowledge
D) Avoiding repetition
Answer: B) Distributed practice

6. What process helps learners organize and control how information flows through
the system?
A) Encoding
B) Retrieval
C) Executive control processes
D) Forgetting
Answer: C) Executive control processes

7. Which of the following best describes procedural knowledge?

A) Knowing how to do something
B) Remembering personal life events
C) Understanding the meaning of words
D) Knowing when and why to use strategies
Answer: A) Knowing how to do something

8. What type of forgetting occurs when new or old information blocks access to the
information needed?
A) Decay
B) Retrieval failure
C) Interference
D) Attention deficit
Answer: C) Interference

9. What is the term for forming mental images to help remember information?
A) Serial positioning
B) Visual imagery
C) Generation effect
D) Metacognition
Answer: B) Visual imagery

10. What technique helps break down complex information into smaller, manageable
parts?
A) Mnemonic devices
B) Chunking
C) Elaborative rehearsal
D) Rote memorization
Answer: B) Chunking
 Republic of the Philippines
ABRA STATE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
Bangued Campus
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
AY: 2024-2025

Jerome Bruner’s Constructivist Theory

Objectives: at the end of the Lesson student are able to

a. Identify what is Constructivism

b. Analyze the concept of Constructivist Theory of Jerome Bruner.
c. Utilize or Make use of this theory in constructing knowledge of their own.

Engage

Start-up Questions.

When you hear about science,

What comes in to you mind?
What is Science in your own Idea?

Can Anyone Give 1 example/situation where you have gained a new information or
Ideas and you constructed new Ideas of your own understanding or concepts.

Explain

KNOWLEDGE IS
CONSTRUCTED – CONSTRUCTIVISM

Learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or

Concepts based upon their
Current/past knowledge.

The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and

Makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so.

EXAMPLE:
An elementary school teacher presents a
Class problem to measure the length of the
“Mayflower.” Rather than starting the problem by introducing the ruler, the teacher
allows students to reflect and to construct their own methods of measurement. One
student offers the knowledge that a doctor said he is four feet tall. Another says she
knows horses are measured in “hands.” The students discuss these and other methods
they have heard about, and decide on one to apply to the problem.

A. SPIRAL CURRICULUM

Bruner’s spiral curriculum is an

Approach to education that involves
Regularly re-visiting the same
Educational topics over the course of
A student’s education. Each time the
Content is re-visited, the student
Gains deeper knowledge of the topic.

B. REPRESENTATION OF KNOWLEDGE

1. ENACTIVE (0-1 YEAR)

Thinking is based entirely on physical actions, and infants learn by doing, rather than
by internal representation (or thinking).

2. ICONIC (1-6 YEARS)

Information is stored as sensory images (icons), usually visual ones, like pictures in
the mind. Thinking is also based on the use of other mental images (icons), such as
hearing,
Smell or touch.

3. SYBOLIC (7 YEARS ONWARD)

Learner has developed the

Ability of think in abstract terms.
This uses symbol system to
Encode knowledge.

C. THEORY OF INSTRUCTION
 1. PREDISPOSITION TO LEARN
Introduced the idea of “Readiness for learning”.

According to this idea, the teacher would design discrepant event activities that would
Pique the students’ curiosity.

2. STRUCTURE OF KNOWLEDGE

Refers to the way in which a Body of knowledge can be Structured so that it can be
most Readily grasped by their learner.

3. EFFECTIVE SEQUENCING

According to Bruner, instruction Should lead the learner through the Content in order
to increase the Student’s ability to “grasp, transform And transfer” what is learned. It
also Refers to the idea of revisiting basic Ideas over and over, building upon Them
and elaborating to the level of Full understanding and mastery.

4. REINFORCEMENT

Rewards and punishments

Should be selected and paced
Appropriately.

D. DISCOVERY LEARNING

Obtaining knowledge for Oneself. LEARNING BECOMES MORE

MEANINGFUL (when) students Explore their learning environment
Rather than listen passively to Teachers.

E. CATEGORIZATION

Categorization of information Is in the construction of Internal COGNITIVE MAPS.

Perception, conceptualization, Learning, decision making, and Making inferences all

involved Categorization.

1. IDENTITY CATEGORIES
2. EQUIVALENT CATEGORIES
3. CODING SYSTEMS

Elaborate
Constructivism is a learning theory which holds that knowledge is best gained through
a process of reflection and active construction in the mind

Constructivism is important as it helps students learn to be active participants in their

education. It helps students construct their own knowledge, develop critical thinking
skills, learn to collaborate with others and students learn to apply their knowledge to
solve real world problems.

Evaluate

1. Bruner’s spiral curriculum is an

Approach to education that involves
Regularly re-visiting the same
Educational topics

2. Enactive Representation of knowledge starts at (1-6 years old)

3. Constructivism is social science discipline that studies how culture shapes

people and society.

4. Also refers to the idea of revisiting basic

Ideas over and over, building upon
Them and elaborating to the level of
Full understanding and mastery.

5. Sybolic representation of Knowledge Starts at (7 years old onwards)

Answer Key

1. True
2. False
3. False
4. True
5. True

References:
Constructivist learning theory. ELM Learning. (2024, November 26).
https://elmlearning.com/hub/learning-theories/constructivism/