Evangelical Theological College

Style Guide
Adapted from the style sheet for Columbia Biblical Seminary & Undergraduate Ministry Courses
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................1

Parts of the Paper .............................................................................................................................2

Abbreviations and Numbers ............................................................................................................3

Spelling, Punctuation, Capitalization, Italics and Quotation Marks ................................................4

Quotations ........................................................................................................................................4

Using Hebrew, Aramaic or Greek Words ........................................................................................5

Using and Citing Sources.................................................................................................................6

Documentation Using the Notes-Bibliography Style ......................................................................7

Using a Computer ............................................................................................................................9

Using the Internet ...........................................................................................................................10

Appendix A: Title Page .................................................................................................................11

Appendix B: Plagiarism .................................................................................................................12

Appendix C: Guide to Graduate Writing .......................................................................................15

 1

Introduction

I. The standard style guide for all papers in the MA in Biblical Studies program at ETC is
the latest edition of Kate L. Turabian, A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and
Dissertations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018). Since all courses require
Turabian’s style, the notes below (beginning at section I) are meant to be a guide to that
style. An instructor has the right to specify one of the styles presented in Turabian's
Manual, but the default style will be Notes-Bibliography.

II. Materials
A. Paper: A4 size white paper. Do not use binders, but staple the paper in the upper
left corner.

B. Length: In defining the length of an assignment, “page” means 250–300 words

when the document is double-spaced.

C. Font: Times New Roman

III. Grammar and Style: All written work submitted as part of course and degree requirements
should contain correct standard grammar and spelling and be written in a clear style.
Ordinarily, faculty members take matters of spelling, grammar, form and appearance into
account. Problems in these areas will affect the final grade of the paper, and professors
reserve the right to return for resubmission any written work that displays the following
characteristics:

A. Spelling: repeated spelling or typographical errors (e.g., five or more errors on two
consecutive pages).

B. Grammar: flagrant errors (e.g., more than one incomplete sentence) or a pattern of
consistent errors throughout.

C. Form/Style: consistent disregard of conventions of style, particularly in footnote

and bibliography form.

D. General Appearance: serious blemishes such as erasure smears, faint type,

wrinkled paper, inconsistent margins, words crossed out.

If a faculty member returns your paper, discuss with them the timeline for resubmission
and any possible grade penalties. If you do not resubmit, you will receive a grade of
zero for the assignment.
 2

Parts of the Paper

(Turabian, Appendix)
I. Title Page: The paper should have a title page laid out in the form illustrated in Appendix
A of this Stylesheet. Instructors may might require a table of contents, but unless one is
specified, do not include one.

II. Text
A. Margins should be at least 1 inch all the way around the page (A.1.1).

B. Spacing: Unless otherwise specified, submit all written work in a clear and legible
typewritten form (Times New Roman), double-spaced unless otherwise specified.
Single space footnotes and indented quotations. Although footnotes should be
single-spaced, one blank space should separate each footnote from the next
(A.1.3).

C. Pagination: All page numbers must be flush right within the upper margin (the
header). The first page of the text of the paper counts as page 1. Neither the title
page nor the table of contents (if there is one) counts in the pagination of the
paper (A.1.4).

D. Fonts: Use Times New Roman throughout the paper, in both the body and
footnotes. The size must be 12-point Times New Roman in the body of the paper
and 10-point Times New Roman in the footnotes (A.1.2).

E. Divisions: You may indicate the logical structure of the paper with the appropriate
section headings in boldface type centered on the page. If you need headings at
several levels, see Turabian A.2.2.4.

III. Bibliography or Reference List: Normally a bibliography is used when footnotes are used
(Turabian, ch. 16 and 17), and a reference list is used when parenthetical notation is used
(Turabian, ch. 18 and 19). The styles are different, and they are both illustrated in
Turabian, ch. 15. See sections VII and VIII below. The note-bibliography form is
required.
 Abbreviations and Numbers 3
(Turabian ch. 24)

II. When referring to the Old Testament, New Testament, or Septuagint, the abbreviations
OT, NT, LXX are neither italicized nor punctuated.

III. When exact references are used for biblical and similar literature, the books are not
italicized and always abbreviated without punctuation. E.g., Gen 12:1; Eph 4:11–16 but
“In Romans 5 Paul argues . . . .” In many cases standard works (e.g. TDNT) and journals
(e.g. JBL) are best abbreviated in footnotes and bibliography.

Gen Neh Hos Matt 1-2 Tim

Exod Esth Joel Mark Titus
Lev Job Amos Luke Phlm
Num Ps (Pl.: Pss) Obad John Heb
Deut Prov Jonah Acts Jas
Josh Eccl (Qoh) Mic Rom 1-2 Pet
Judg Song (Cant) Nah 1-2 Cor 1-2-3 John
Ruth Isa Hab Gal Jude
1-2 Sam Jer Zeph Eph Rev
1-2 Kgs Lam Hag Phil
1-2 Chr Ezek Zech Col
Ezra Dan Mal 1-2 Thess

V. When extra-biblical ancient sources are cited within the body of a paper, they should be
cited similarly to biblical references. Here are two examples:
C A simple example of chiasmus at the sentence level is found in Rhetorica ad
Herennium 4.28.39 under the definition of commutatio: “You must eat to live, not
live to eat.” In extra-biblical Greco-Roman works chiasmus functioned in three
ways: (1) to reinforce a point (Plato, Symposium 193b; Republic 500c; P.Oxy 858),
(2) to make a comparison (Demosthenes, 8.70; Plato, Republic 334a), and (3) to
sharpen a contrast between ideas (Plato, Phaedo 80a; Dio Chrysostom 15.29;
Isocrates 4.95; Epicurus, Frg 25).

C Inclusion is the use of the same word(s) to begin and end a discussion. Hellenistic
speakers and writers used it frequently. Aristotle, for example, used it repeatedly in
his Rhetoric (1.5.7; 1.5.16: 1.5.17; 1.15.26) and in his Politics (1.2.1; 1.2.23; 4.4.2;
4.4.7); as did Epicurus in his epistle to Herodotus (45; 46).

VI. The convention for numbers specified by Turabian is to “spell out numbers from one
through one hundred. If the number has two words, use a hyphen (fifty-five). Also spell
out round numbers followed by hundred, thousand, hundred thousand, million, and so
on.” For all other numbers use numerals. Citing statistics is an exception to this
convention (23.1).
 4

VII. Roman numerals are becoming less popular than they once were. Use Arabic numbers,
e.g., 1 Timothy, 2 Corinthians.

VIII. "B.C." ("before Christ") stands after the year number, e.g., 64 B.C., but "A.D." ("year of
our Lord") stands before the year number, e.g., A.D. 70.

Spelling, Punctuation, Capitalization, Italics and Quotation Marks

(Turabian, ch. 20 & 21)

I. In academic writing, standard spelling and punctuation are expected. Turabian discusses
the basic conventions at some length. If you are weak in this area, you should spend some
time reading this chapter. Never submit a paper without running a spell-check program,
but remember that spell-checks are not infallible.

II. Capitalization: Follow standard practice (22.1 & 22.3). For a good guide to capitalization
of religious words see The Chicago Manual of Style, 8.91–8.111.

III. Italics and quotation marks: As a matter of general practice, italicize titles of whole
published works and use quotation marks for parts of works.
A. Use italics for titles of books, periodicals (journals or magazines), pamphlets, or
bulletins.

B. Use italics for foreign words that are written in Roman script: “The word he uses
is pragmatica.” This guideline does not apply if you quote a full sentence or
more; it applies only to words or phrases inserted into English sentences. Greek
and Hebrew words are best included in their original form. Widespread access to
word-processing programs with Greek and Hebrew font capabilities should
eliminate the need to “write in” Greek or Hebrew characters by hand. If you
transliterate, however, the English transliteration should be in italics.

C. Use quotation marks for the titles of dissertations or other unpublished works.

D. Do not use either italics or quotation marks for the title of a series or for the
names of Scriptures or parts of Scriptures (The Bible, The Qur'an, Daniel).

Quotations
(Turabian, ch. 25)

I. Plagiarism: See Appendix B.

II. Form: Run short quotations into the text of your paper, with appropriate punctuation.
They should fit the grammar of your sentence. Block longer quotations. The standard is
as follows: “Present a prose quotation of five or more lines as a block quotation.” You are
to “single-space a block quotation, and leave a blank line before and after it. Do not add
quotation marks at the beginning or end, but preserve any quotation marks in the original.
 5

Indent the entire quotation as far as you indent the first line of a paragraph” (25.2.2.1).
Note that the indentation is from the left margin only.
A. Place all periods and commas inside quotation marks regardless of the length of
the quotation— “like this,” and place semicolons and colons outside— “like this”;
the one exception to this standard is the case where you have a parenthetical
reference at the end of a sentence. In that case move the period, but not the
quotation marks, to a point following the parenthesis—“like this” (25.2.1.1).

B. Place question marks and exclamation marks outside quotation marks unless the
question or exclamation occurs within the quotation itself.

C. Use three spaced periods to indicate an omission in something you are quoting
from one of your sources . . . like this (25.3.2).

D. In quoting, follow precisely the wording, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation

of the original (for exceptions see 25.3). An incorrect word or incorrect spelling in
the original quotation should be followed by [sic].

E. You may insert words into quotations for clarification or explanation, but you
should enclose such insertions in square brackets [like this].

F. You may italicize words not italicized in the original for emphasis, and indicate
the addition by a parenthetical note following the quotation, e.g., (italics mine).

Using Hebrew, Aramaic or Greek Words

There are certain accepted conventions to be observed when using Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek
words.

I. Use original language terms only when you consider them important (e.g., for the sake of
accuracy). A Hebrew, Aramaic or Greek word should be transliterated with its first use in
a chapter. Always italicize transliteration.

II. Unless necessary, do not cite a Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek term more than once in the
immediate context.

III. Do not vocalize Hebrew and Aramaic words.

IV. Normally, use a Hebrew or Greek font to represent these languages. If it is necessary to
transliterate, the transliteration should conform to the following.
A. Hebrew consonants: ˀ b g d h w z ḥ ṭ y k l m n s ˁ p ṣ q r ś š t

B. Transliteration for ‫ א‬and ‫ ע‬should be written in with a fine black pen if the raised
semicircle is not available on the word processing program. Also, acceptable is
 6

the use of the markings for a parenthesis in a superscript position, e.g., ) and (. Do
not use an apostrophe for ‫ א‬or a raised "c" for ‫ע‬.

C. The spirant form of a b g d k p t letter is normally not indicated; if necessary, use

underlined b g d k p t. Dāgeš forte is shown by doubling the consonant (e.g.,
hammelek). Normally mappiq is not indicated.

D. Vowels: a (pataḥ), ā (qāmeṣ), â (final qāmeṣ hê), e (sĕgōl), ē (ṣērê), ê (final and
medial ṣērê yôd and medial sĕgōl yôd) , i (short ḥîreq defectively written), ī (long
ḥîreq), î (medial or final ḥîreq yôd), ŏ (qāmeṣ ḥāṭûp), ō (ḥōlem defectively
written), ô (ḥōlem fully written), u (short qibbûṣ),ū (long qibbûṣ defectively
written), û (šûreq). Other final vowels are to be written with the appropriate
vowel sign followed by hē (or ˀāleph) or matres lectionis. Furtive pataḥ is to be
recorded as pataḥ (e.g., rûah). Reduced vowels are to be written with the breve: ă,
ě, Short vowels fully written should be shown as o(w), u(w), i(v). Accents are not
normally written; if necessary, the acute accent is to be used for the primary and
the grave for the secondary accent. A hyphen is to be used for maqqēp.

E. For transliteration of Aramaic, the system described above for Hebrew is to be

followed, even though ṣērê and ḥōlem are frequently not markers of long vowels
in Aramaic.

F. When transliterating Greek words, use th for θ, ph for φ, ch for χ, ps for ψ, ē for η,
ō for ω, h for the rough breathing, and y for υ, except when it is part of a
diphthong (e.g., au). Iōta subscript should be obtained from a character set or
represented by a cedilla under the vowel concerned (e.g. a for ᾳ, e for ῃ, o for ῳ).

Using and Citing Sources

Turabian illustrates two primary methods for documenting sources (i.e., giving your sources
credit). The first is the notes-bibliography style, presented in chapters 16 and 17; this approach
requires a bibliography at the end of the paper. The second approach is the author-date style;
presented in chapters 18 and 19. Chapter 15 gives examples of both styles, marked as follows:
for notes-bibliography style, the note form is marked as N and the bibliography form as B. For
the author-date style, the parenthetical reference is marked as P and the reference list as R.
Notes-bibliography style is the required format.

I. Avoid unnecessary quotes, especially from works that are general in nature such as OT
introductions and non-technical commentaries. Include only materials that are directly
relevant to your argument.

II. There should be a one-to-one correspondence between the works cited in the paper and
the works listed in the bibliography or reference list. A professor may, of course, instruct
you otherwise for a particular reason.
 7

III. In research it is important to determine who is speaking. When citing from composite
sources such as The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, Theological
Dictionary of the New Testament (Kittel), or The Expositor's Bible Commentary, use the
name of the scholar who actually wrote the article cited.

IV. It is also important to determine when material was written. Be on the alert for modern
reprints of early works. Give both dates for such works.

V. Order the works in the bibliography alphabetically (by last name). Order multiple works
by the same author alphabetically by title.

VI. Do not include the English Bible in the bibliography.

VII. If you are writing the paper for a course in English Bible, you could use several
translations. Include a footnote after the first quotation of the most commonly used
version stating, "All quotations, unless otherwise noted, are taken from . . ."

VIII. If you are writing the paper for a course in Biblical Languages, indicate in the
bibliography the edition of the biblical text(s) used along with other ancient sources cited.

IX. Do not use footnotes for biblical references. Include them in parentheses in the body of
the paper. Similarly, use parentheses for high-frequency items such as page references to
a work under review.

Documentation Using the Notes-Bibliography Style

(Turabian, ch. 16 and 17)

This section represents the required style presented by Turabian.

I. Format
A. Footnotes are preferable to endnotes, especially since they are so easy to insert
with word processing programs. Place each footnote at the bottom of the page on
which the reference is made. Number the footnotes consecutively. While Turabian
prefers that footnote numbers be “formatted not as a superscript but as regular
text” (16.3.4) and followed by a period, it allows for footnote numbers to be
superscript without a period. This latter format is preferred at ETC. There should
be one space between the footnote number and the text of the footnote.

B. The first footnote reference to a given work should contain the same information
as the listing in the bibliography, as well as the page reference and any other
comments in the format shown in Turabian. Note that the style of footnotes and
the style of bibliographical entries will differ.

C. When you have two or more successive footnotes referring to the same source, use
ibid. In notes, ibid. should not be italicized. It should be at the start of a note
 8

and be capitalized. “Since ibid. is an abbreviation, it must end with a period; if

the citation includes a page number, put a comma after ibid. If the page number of
a reference is the same as in the previous note, do not include a page number after
ibid.” (16.4.2). If you need to refer to a source that you have referred to earlier in
the document, use a short reference. Review section 16.4.1 carefully to see how
this should be done, and consistently use the author-title form rather than the
author-only form, e.g., Turabian, A Manual for Writers, 164.

D. At the end of the paper, present all the sources cited in the forms illustrated
in chapter 17.

E. For citing electronic documents including internet sources see Turabian 17.5.

II. Examples
The following are examples of types of sources not easily found in other guides.
A. Ancient sources can be particularly troublesome. The following examples, given
in the appropriate form for a footnote (N) and for the bibliography (B), are
typical:
1
N Aristotle, The “Art” of Rhetoric, trans. J. H. Freese, Loeb
Classical Library (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1926), 127.

B Aristotle. The “Art” of Rhetoric. Translated by J. H. Freese. Loeb

Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
1926.
2
N Augustine, Christian Doctrine, trans. M. Dods, A Select Library
of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979), 127.

B Augustine. Christian Doctrine. Translated by M. Dods. A Select Library

of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979.

3
N Biblica Hebraica Stuttgartensia, ed. K. Ellinger, W. Rudolph.
Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelstiftung, 1983.

B Biblica Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Edited by K. Ellinger, W. Rudolph.

Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelstiftung, 1983.
4
N The Greek New Testament, 3rd ed., ed. K. Aland, M. Black, C.
M. Martini, B. M. Metzger, and A. Wikgren (New York: United Bible
Societies, 1975).
 9

B The Greek New Testament. 3rd ed. Edited by K. Aland, M.Black, C. M.

Martini, B. M. Metzger, and A Wikgren. New York: United Bible
Societies, 1975.

B. Specialized dictionaries or encyclopedias with extended signed articles, e.g.,

R. Kittel, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament.
1
N Herman Strathman, “πολις κτλ.,” in Theological Dictionary of
the New Testament, ed. Gerhard Friedrich and Gerhard Kittel, 10 vols.
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964-1976), 6:520.

B Strathman, Herman. “πολις κτλ.” In Theological Dictionary of the

New Testament, 6:516–535. Edited by Gerhard Friedrich and
Gerhard Kittel. 10 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964-1976.

C. Major commentary series should be handled as follows (see 17.1.5):

1
N C. A. Briggs and E. G. Briggs, A Critical and Exegetical
Commentary on the Book of Psalms. International Critical Commentary,
edited by S. R. Driver, A. Plummer, and C. A. Briggs (Edinburgh: T. and
T. Clark, 1906-1907), 215.

B Briggs, C. A., and E. G. Briggs. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on

the Book of Psalms. International Critical Commentary, edited by
S. R. Driver, A. Plummer, and C. A. Briggs. Edinburgh: T. and T.
Clark, 1906-1907.

D. Unpublished material cited from lectures, public addresses, proceedings, etc.,

should be handled as follows:
1
N J. Robertson McQuilkin, “Biblical Authority Made Functional”
(lecture, delivered to APT 605, Principles of Christian Work class of the
Columbia Biblical Seminary and Graduate School of Missions, Columbia,
SC, October 19, 1980).

B McQuilkin, J. Robertson. “Biblical Authority Made Functional.” Lecture

delivered to APT 605, Principles of Christian Work class of the
Columbia Biblical Seminary and Graduate School of Missions,
October 19, 1980.

Using a Computer

I. The standard word processing programs for ETC papers is Microsoft Word.

II. Be certain to make back-up copies of your text. No system is 100% reliable; occasionally
and unpredictably, files can become unreadable. You should periodically save your file.
“The computer lost my text!” is no more compelling as an excuse for a late paper than “The
 10

dog ate my homework!” Murphy's Law applies particularly well to computers: “If
something can go wrong, it will.” Plan ahead. Have a back-up drive; email yourself a copy.
Or, print your finished paper the day before it is due so that you have time to deal with
unexpected difficulties.

Using the Internet

The Internet is a significant source of research materials, and those concerned with using research
sources appropriately and citing them adequately differ on the standards to use. The four points
below need to be considered when citing Internet sources in an academic paper. Note that the
guidance for electronic sources continues to evolve; review chapter 15 of Turabian closely.

I. If a full Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is available, that is the preferred method of
citation. That is not always the case, however. If a document was accessed through a
program like Gopher or Telnet, there may be only a command-pathway available. But note:
“for any source you consult online, you must always cite the full facts of publication in
addition to a URL” (15.4.1.3).

II. Care needs to be taken with dates, distinguishing, for example between the date of
publication or latest revision and the date of access. This distinction is necessary because of
the fact that electronic documents are subject to what has been called “invisible
revisability.” That is, an author may revise a document without indicating that it has been
done. See 15.4.1.5 for guidance.

III. E-mail discussion lists present a special problem for addressing because the role of
‘publisher’ becomes rather confusing. See 17.5.4 for guidance.

IV. Because hypertext is fundamental to the Internet, it is possible to access documents through
an indefinitely large number of pathways. There is no ideal address for any one document,
but be aware that citations to the same document may appear in different contexts under
different URLs.
 11

Appendix A
Title Page

(Approximately 3 1/2" down)

Title Goes Here
(Headline Style Capitalization, centered, bold)

(Approximately 7” down, centered, double spaced)

Your name

Course name

Professor's Name

Evangelical Theological College

Date turned in:

 12

Appendix B
Plagiarism

Plagiarism, regardless of your intent, is the presentation of someone else’s words or ideas as
your own. This means you may not use someone else’s words, ideas, conclusions, or
examples without giving proper credit; you may not submit work done by another student as
your own; you may not submit anything you got from a printed source or from an electronic
source like those on the Internet as your own; and you may not help another student do any of
these things. Plagiarism will result in a grade of zero, and may result in failure in the
assignment, failure in the course, and further disciplinary action. When necessary, the
appropriate personnel dean and program head will be informed.

The one exception to this standard is what is known as “common knowledge.” It consists of
the basic information that is common to a field (like history, Bible, or anthropology) and is
available in any basic textbook or encyclopedia article. It includes historical and scientific
facts and even the basic principles of a discipline. When you come across the same
information in a number of your research sources and none of them give credit to a particular
author, you may consider it common knowledge, and you may use it without giving credit to
any particular source. Outside the realm of this common knowledge, however, you are
expected to acknowledge your sources. If you do not, it is plagiarism. Note that even when
using material that is common knowledge you may not use the words or sentence structure of
the author from which you took the material without using quotation marks and giving that
author credit (see the next paragraph).

Plagiarism may take several forms: (a) quoting an author’s words without either indicating
they are quoted or giving the source; (b) using an author’s sentence structure and changing a
few words to hide the fact it was stolen; or (c) paraphrasing or summarizing an author’s
words without giving credit to the source.

Here are some examples of plagiarism illustrated by how several students use a passage from
Early Christian Doctrines by J. N. D. Kelly.

First, here is Kelly’s passage:

With the dawn of the third century the rough outlines of a recognized
penitential discipline were beginning to take shape. In spite of the ingenious
arguments of certain scholars, there are still no signs of a sacrament of private
penance (i.e., confession to a priest, followed by absolution and the imposition
of a penance) such as Catholic Christendom knows to-day. The system which
seems to have existed in the Church at this time, and for centuries afterwards,
was wholly public, involving confession, a period of penance and exclusion
from communion, and formal absolution and restoration–the whole process
being called exomologesis.
 13

Here is one student’s use of some material from this passage:

The sources of penance as a system are somewhat vague. At the beginning of
the third century the rough outlines of a recognized penitential system were
beginning to take shape. Although some scholars disagree, there are still no
signs of a sacrament of private penance. The system which existed in the
Church at this time, and for centuries afterwards, was very public.

This use of the material is plagiarism. The student wrote the first sentence himself and
after that essentially copied his words from the source, changing a few words and
leaving out a few phrases.

Here is the same passage from the student’s paper with the quoted words in italics and
some words from the original in brackets:
The sources of penance as a system are somewhat vague. At the beginning of
the third century the rough outlines of a recognized penitential [discipline]
system were beginning to take shape. Although some scholars disagree, there
are still no signs of a sacrament of private penance. The system which [seems
to have] existed in the Church at this time, and for centuries afterward was
[wholly] very public.

This student’s use of the source shows three problems: (a) The main problem is that
there are no quotation marks. If you are going to quote an author, do so accurately and
use quotation marks. (b) The second problem is that the student has not mentioned his
source. Even if he had, however, it would still be plagiarism, because he used the
author’s sentence structure and wording without quoting accurately and using quotation
marks. (c) The third problem is that the student misquoted the source. At the end of what
he wrote he said, “very public” rather than “wholly public”–not as serious an error as the
others, but somewhat inaccurate.

Here is a second student’s use of the same material–using quotations properly:

Although the origins of penance (following private confession) as a sacrament
are somewhat vague, J. N. D. Kelly claims that “with the dawn of the third
century the rough outlines of a recognized penitential discipline were
beginning to take shape.” However, he does claim that what happened “at this
time, and for centuries afterwards, was wholly public, involving confession, a
period of penance and exclusion from communion, and formal absolution and
restoration."1

This example uses the source correctly, with quotation marks indicating the words
that have been copied and the citation (indicated by the superscript number)
giving credit to the original author.
 14

Here is still a third student’s use of the same material—this time

paraphrasing with no quotations but using Kelly’s ideas and giving
appropriate credit:
Although the origins of penance (following private confession) as a sacrament
are somewhat vague, J. N. D. Kelly argues that at the beginning of the third
century confession was still public in the church and had not yet become a
private matter between the confessor and his priest.1

Again, this example uses the source correctly. The student has accurately reflected what the
original author said and given appropriate credit.
 15

Appendix C
Guide to Graduate Writing

Good writing can result from careful attention to a few basic keys. Paying attention to these keys
will not guarantee you will be a great writer, but not paying attention to them will guarantee you
will not. The first key, of course, is that you must have something to say. Papers that simply
wander through a topic summarizing what others have said and not making a point of their own
are usually a waste of time for both writer and reader. A good paper results from careful
research, analysis, synthesis, and presentation. This principle does not mean that you should not
begin to write before you have something to say, but it does mean that early in the research
process one of your main goals should be to begin shaping your own opinions on this topic.
These pages are not concerned with the research, analysis, or synthesis phases of the process, but
with the presentation of your ideas to a reader.

I. Structure: When you have something to say, the first consideration in presenting your
thoughts is to structure your material for communication. Each field of study has its own
approach to writing. What are described here are some generic elements that go into
scholarly writing. All of them may not fit the particular discipline for which you are
writing, but they are easily adjustable. Regardless of how you approach a piece of
writing, though, the main consideration is that you think of the reader and what he/she is
going to understand by what you write. The reader has no obligation to read your mind.
A. Begin the paper with a statement of the issue being addressed, not with
conclusions—either yours or those of others—or with dictionary definitions.
Ideally, you should approach a paper with some research question you are going
to address, or at least you should formulate one in the early stages of your
research. You need not state it as a question in your paper, but the reader should
be clear on the issue you are addressing by the end of your introduction, and
should also have a good idea of the scope of your topic.

B. It is usually appropriate to describe the history of the discussion of a particular

problem, presenting scholars' opinions either chronologically, by type of method
used (e.g., source criticism, form criticism, redaction criticism), or by basic
approach to the problem (e.g., historical, literary, theological). Becoming familiar
with this history will, of course, inform your own thinking and give you a context
in which to think about your topic. This reading can begin at a general level, but it
should progress from there to more detailed discussions. The bibliography for
these more detailed discussions can often come from the general reading.

C. After you have laid out the background evidence from your sources, begin your
argument with the evidence from the primary texts, quoting or summarizing the
material that is particularly relevant to your problem. Generally, the rule is to
quote sparingly, summarizing most evidence and quoting only critical points.
Then discuss the range of scholarly opinions concerning the problem. Finally,
present a hypothesis that explains the evidence, supporting it with argumentation.
 16

D. At the end of the paper, spell out your conclusions on the topic and present them
so as to convince your reader of your position.

II. Use of Sources: A paper is more than a summary of your reading; it is an expression of
your opinions based on your reading, a discussion of which you can claim to be the
author. Use what you get from your sources as the raw material for your discussion, but
make your points in your own words.
A. One important consideration in doing so is to distinguish between primary and
secondary evidence. In biblical studies, primary evidence is material that is
derived directly from ancient documents. Secondary evidence is material that has
been developed by current scholarship (e.g., arguments, lines of thought, methods
of handling the primary evidence, and conclusions drawn from it). In other areas,
primary evidence consists of reports of original research or the materials used for
that research.

B. Each scholar has the right to have his/her point of view presented fairly. A
scholar's work should be understood against its background. Be particularly
careful to accurately reflect a writer's thought and not to use pejorative language
to dismiss opinions with which you disagree.

C. Repeated references to a single author suggest inadequate control of the literature.

There is no virtue in simply summarizing the work of one author. A well-
researched paper compares the points of view of various scholars (unless your
assignment is to review the work of one author).

III. Paragraphs: The fundamental unit of any writing, especially scholarly writing, is the
paragraph. When you have a structure clearly in mind, you will build it from paragraphs.
Most people who can write a good paragraph can write a good paper. Bad paragraphs
usually show weaknesses in at least one of three basic areas—structure, development, or
coherence.
A. To achieve structure, the best practice is to begin each paragraph with a topic
sentence that states clearly the point you want to make in that paragraph. This
sentence should always be in your own words because it is a statement of your
point. You should then use each succeeding sentence to develop some aspect of
the point made in your topic sentence. Most of them should also be in your own
words, although they may summarize or paraphrase information from your
sources (giving credit appropriately). You may insert quotations where necessary
to represent your sources. Often you should round out the paragraph with a
concluding sentence.

B. To achieve development, you need to use facts, opinions, and logical arguments
appropriate to the topic of your paragraph. The nature of the point you wish to
make in the paragraph will determine what type of development to use. If your
point calls for historical facts, give enough to do the job; if it demands theological
opinion, use the best sources you can find; if it requires biblical exegesis, work
carefully through the relevant aspects of the issue; or if it calls for logical
 17

argument, argue from the known to the unknown and use appropriate facts and
analogies. The thing to keep in mind throughout is the point you wish to make in
the paragraph.

C. In addition to structure and development, paragraphs also need coherence. To

achieve it, you need to pay careful attention to the logical relationships between
your ideas. The first (topic) sentence should usually include a word or phrase that
forms a transition from the point of the previous paragraph (like in addition to at
the beginning of this paragraph). Within the paragraph as well, each sentence
should be clearly connected to the preceding. You may use pronouns like he or this
(as in this sentence); conjunctive words or phrases (like similarly, however, for
these reasons or as a result); parallel structure (such as that in the previous
paragraph); repeating words or phrases such as sentence (two paragraphs back);
using semantically similar words (like paragraph, sentence, word).

IV. Sentences: Since paragraphs are made of sentences, you need to be able to write good
sentences in order to write good paragraphs. The two basic considerations are correctness
and effectiveness. Sentence correctness is a matter of grammaticality, and the most
common grammatical faults are the following:
A. Sentence fragments are strings of words punctuated as sentences but not really
qualifying as such. They often begin with subordinating conjunctions: When they
had fully argued the issue and come to a consensus resulting from compromise on
both sides. They often have an -ing form of a verb with no auxiliary: Having fully
argued the issue and come to a consensus resulting from compromise on both
sides. These fragments are often easy to spot if you read them in isolation; they
depend on their context for meaning.

B. Run-on (fused) sentences and comma splices are about as common as fragments.
They result from joining two sentences without proper conjunction or
punctuation. This development has contributed a great deal to our understanding
of the problem, such developments have always been helpful in the field of
historical research. In this example, two independent clauses are joined by a
comma, but often in such cases the comma is omitted. Both are ungrammatical.
These two clauses should be written as two sentences or at least joined with a
semicolon rather than a comma.

C. Imprecise or incorrect pronoun reference makes writing unclear or confusing.

When you use words like this, these, they, that, which, and it, be sure they have a
specific referent—not like this: In Romans chapter 8 it teaches . . . What teaches?
In addition, do not refer to a noun that is only implied: In Augustine's writings he
takes the following approach. Here 'Augustine' is used as a modifier, not as a
noun; so the reference of 'he' is awkward.

D. Accidental shifts in tense are also confusing. This practice was fully established
by the third century. After this there is no question raised about it. Everyone
seemed to be agreed on what should be done. Shift tense only when your meaning
 18

shifts between the past and the present. Effectiveness is different from
grammaticality. It involves such issues as clarity and emphasis.

E. Ideas have relative weight (in their context) and should be reflected in how you
coordinate and subordinate them in your sentences. For example, here is a
sentence from Richard Longenecker: Because of his view of the corrupting nature
of the material body, Philo viewed communion with God to be a matter for the
soul alone. The second idea is the point he wants to make, and the first is the
reason for it, so he subordinates the first. Here is his next sentence; in this one the
ideas are coordinated: The body might be indirectly purified by the initiated and
pure mind, but it never enters directly into fellowship with God. These are ideas
are roughly equal weight.

F. Parallelism makes for smooth writing, and non-parallel structures can be

stumbling blocks. Here is an example of non-parallel structure: In the early
chapters he reviews the fundamentals, but little emphasis is placed on the finer
points. Reworded it would read like this: In the early chapters he reviews the
fundamentals but places little emphasis on the finer points. Sentence variety is an
important element of good writing. In adult writing, sentence length usually varies
from about ten to thirty words, averaging between fifteen and twenty-five. If your
sentences are all at the short end of that scale, your writing will sound choppy,
and if they are at the long end they will probably be hard to follow. They should
vary between these two extremes. You can either calculate your sentence length
yourself by using one or two representative pages, or you can use the word count
function that is available on many word processing programs.

G. Sentences should not only vary in length, but also in structure. If a page of writing
has many sentences that begin in the same way (with pronouns or prepositional
phrases, for example) some need to be rewritten with different beginnings.

H. Sentence order is another important contributor to clarity. A sentence which, after

piling up modifiers and qualifications, exploring nuances and bypaths, and
threading its way through many intricacies of thought, finally gets to its point at
the end is known as a periodic sentence. Such a sentence can be effective, but it
must be carefully and skillfully constructed if it is to be clear. A cumulative
sentence, on the other hand, makes its point at the beginning and then adds
modifiers. Such a sentence has much more chance of being clear and has, in fact,
the ability to carry quite a few modifiers without becoming overloaded.

I. The passive voice can be useful in scholarly writing, and some authors even
recommend it. To avoid it is worth some effort because it can put writing to sleep.
It is better to say, Verse 27 supports this interpretation, than to say, This
interpretation is supported by verse 27. And Most authorities claim . . . is better
than This is claimed by most authorities . . .

V. Word choice: After considering the paper as a whole, the paragraph, and the sentence, the
next level you need to consider is the words that make up sentences. Writing and speech
 19

come in different forms or registers, as they are called. The register should fit the
circumstances. Scholarly writing calls for a scholarly register, which is not only more
formal than conversational register, but also more exact. Formality is something to be
handled with care, though; it is not the same as abstractness. Much scholarly writing
suffers from being too abstract. Note the following (the writer can be anonymous for this
purpose): The second group of passages containing the title consists of those in which
Jesus couples it with statements concerning His approaching suffering, death and
(sometimes) resurrection. . . . That the joining together of the title with these peculiar
predicates is not accidental appears not only from the constancy of occurrence, but also
from its frequency, beginning precisely where the direct announcement by Jesus of His
approaching passion sets in. Such writing is unnecessarily abstract and demonstrates
more muddiness than intelligence.

Abstractness is not the only issue concerned with word choice. Much student writing is
characterized by fairly common problems involving individual words. The following are
examples of specific problems observed in students' writing and suggested corrections:
A. Avoid contracted words like it's and doesn't and use instead it is and does not.
(Note that the possessive "its" does not have an apostrophe.)

B. However is not a conjunction and cannot be used after a comma to join two
sentences; however, it can stand after a semicolon, as in this sentence.

C. Certain words are habitually misused: Like is not a conjunction; use as instead—
e.g., As Arnott claims, . . . Infer does not mean imply. Readers infer by drawing a
conclusion from what is written. Writers imply things by suggesting them without
expressly stating them. Farther refers to distance; further refers to time or
quantity. Methodology means the theory or study of method. A method is a
manner or mode of procedure.

D. In a logical argument the word "feel" is out of place. Use "consider" or

"conclude.”

VI. Punctuation: Several punctuation problems tend to dominate students' writing.

A. You do not usually need a comma after an opening prepositional phrase that is
part of the thought of a sentence (although sometimes a comma can clarify a case
of ambiguity). "In the beginning" is part of the thought "In the beginning God
created . . ." and does not take a comma, but phrases like "In my opinion" are not
part of the following thought, so they do take a comma.

B. If you have an opening clause that begins with If, When, Since, or another
subordinate conjunction, separate it from the main clause with a comma—as
illustrated by this sentence.

C. Do not put punctuation before an opening parenthesis, but after a closing one (if
necessary), and do not leave a space after an opening parenthesis or before a
closing parenthesis.
 20

D. A dash consists of two hyphens without a space between them or on either side of
them.

E. Do not leave extra space after periods that mark abbreviations.

F. Do not underline end punctuation in underlined material; stop it before the

punctuation.

G. Do not use a colon after a verb to begin a series; a colon should come only at the
end of a clause. You usually do not need a colon and can simply say, for example,
that the colors were red, white, and blue (not "The colors were: red, white, and
blue.").

H. Use apostrophes correctly to indicate possession. Add ’s to singular nouns

regardless of whether they end in an s or not (the bishop’s policy, Charles’s laws);
the one exception to this is the case of ancient names (Jesus’ disciples, Socrates’
teachings). Add an ’s to plural words like children which do not end with an s, but
add only an apostrophe to plural words that end with a plural s (the participants’
behavior).

VII. The Writing Process: Writing is a process, and the more control you take over the process
the easier it becomes. Most graduate level writing starts with research and is the
assumption underlying the following discussion. It is not a guide to the methods of
research; it simply offers some suggestions on how to use your research to make your
writing easier.
A. Research: As you conduct your research, one of your most important tasks is to
find the limits and shape of your topic. As you do, a good approach is to develop
a planning sheet—one sheet of paper on which you jot down the main point of
your paper and a preliminary working outline that will guide your research and
writing. This sheet will look something like a thesis and outline page, but under
each point of the outline you make a note of the sources you will use and the kind
of information they will give you. This sheet will be your roadmap to get you
through the paper.

Most people make research notes in one or more of three forms: on notecards, on
highlighted photocopies of pages from sources, or as notes typed directly from
sources into a computer. Each one of these methods has its advantages. Notecards
allow a great deal of flexibility in organizing your material. Photocopied pages
save time and preserve the context of statements in your sources. Typing notes
directly into the computer has the advantage that when you wish to incorporate
notes into your paper they are already typed and all you need to do is cut and
paste or drag them to the desired place.

B. Writing: Plan on more than one draft; you have many tasks to perform and cannot
do them all at once—planning, shaping your thoughts, presenting them clearly,
and making your writing forceful and correct. You can approach the writing
 21

process itself in one of two ways. Both work well, and the choice may be a matter
of your personality as a writer or even the nature of the topic—and both can
effectively use the planning sheet developed in the previous step. The first is zero-
drafting, and the second is drafting from notes.

1. Zero-drafting is sitting down with only your preliminary thesis and outline
and writing a draft based on the knowledge you have gained from your
reading and note- taking—without looking at any of your notes. As you
draft, of course, you are free to write notes to yourself (like "fill in details
here" or "check some other sources here"). When you have written the first
draft, you go back and in a second draft add specific quotations,
paraphrases, and references from your notes.

2. Drafting from notes is the more common approach. You spread your notes
out on your desk and arrange them in order under slips of paper with the
appropriate headings from your preliminary outline; then using your
outline and notes you draft the paper.
The second approach may sound easier since it lets you write with notes in
front of you, but the first approach has an advantage: it is more likely to
produce a paper shaped from your own thinking rather than just a summary
of your research. If the zero-drafting approach sounds scary, remember that
you do have your notes to fall back on. No matter which approach you use,
write your first draft as quickly as possible without worrying about matters
of form and correctness or even details (but do footnote as you go); you
will be coming back later to revise anyway. Often it can be helpful to break
a long paper into bite-sized chunks according to your preliminary outline
and write these one at a time.

C. Revising and Editing: Your work deserves careful revision and editing. Take the
time to revise for effectiveness and edit for correctness. These are two separate
steps, and they can only be done after you have a draft to work with. After writing
your draft, take a break and then read your paper through several times for
different things.
1. Your first run-through should be to check what you have written for
effectiveness. The revision process can seem disorganized, involving a
number of readings and revisions as you go. Some prefer to revise on a
hard copy of the paper; others have accustomed themselves to doing it on
the computer screen. The kind of things you are looking for here are the
following: Have you said what you wanted to say? Is the point of the
whole paper clear? Do the points you make in each paragraph contribute
to your argument? Will the whole thing leave the reader with one
impression and be convincing?

2. Your final step is editing: checking for correctness. Concentrate on things

teachers have pointed out as your weaknesses—sentence structure, word
 22

use, punctuation, spelling. Have someone else read the paper for you and
point out any problems, but make the corrections yourself. If you have someone
else type the paper, you are still responsible to check it afterwards.