UNIT-I

 Occupation; Profession or job

 Safety;- The state being safe
 Health; state of physical, mental and social
 Administration; control or managing
OSHA Stands for the Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the United States
Department of Labor, formed by the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970
OSHA's objective

• to secure the safety, health and welfare of persons at work

against risks out of the activities at work;
• to protect person at a place of work other than persons at work
against risks out of the activities at work;
• to promote an occupational environment for persons at work
which is adapted to their physiological and psychological
• to provide the means to be progressively replaced by a system
of regulations and approved industry codes…
• to maintain or improve the standards of safety and health

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY ASSESSMENT

An occupational health and safety assessment is done to evaluate the risk involved in the workplace
with objectives to remove, reduce and replace the source of risk with a safer equipment or process, or
to lessen the risk to the health and safety of the workers.

An occupational safety and health assessment is important for the safety and morale of the
employees or legal and financial reasons. By law, employers need to protect their employees by
establishing preventative, punitive and compensatory effects. An occupational safety and health
assessment helps to reduce the number of work related deaths and injuries, sick-leave, medical
expenditure, disability benefit costs. It also promotes improvement of quality, production, profit and
minimizes worker migration.
The occupational safety and health assessment involves following actions:
 Identifying hazards and those who are at risk and why they are at risk
 Evaluating and prioritizing risks and what the risks are
 Deciding on preventive actions about how to eliminate or reduce the risk
 Taking actions by elimination, reduction, and replacement using alternatives
 Monitoring and reviewing for further improvement
 Documenting the assessment and report

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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
Occupational health is an area of work in public health to promote and maintain highest degree of
physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations.
WHO/ILO defines occupational health as: the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of
physical, mental, and social well-being of workers in all occupations
Occupational health is concerned with the control of occupational health hazards that arise as a
result of or during work activities.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AIM

• "the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-
being of workers in all occupations“
• To prevent occupational hazards/ diseases.
• To achieve maximum human efficiency and machine efficiency.
• To reduce sickness and absenteeism.
• To reduce industrial accidents.
• Place and maintain occupational environment
• To increase the production

OBJECTIVE OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH

• To maintain and promote the physical, mental and social well being of the workers. ( workers
health and working capacity)
• The improvement of working conditions and working environment to become conducive to
safety and health
• To adapt the work place and work environment to the needs of the workers i.e application of
ergonomics principle.
• Developing healthy work practices and promoting workplace health
• the development of work organization and working cultures in a direction which support
health and safety at work
• Improving the quality of occupational health services.
• To prevent occupational diseases and injuries.
• Prevention and control of workplace health hazards
• Ensure medical care and Rehabilitation of the disabled
• It should be preventive rather than curative.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH PROGRAM COMPONENT

1. Safety and Accident Prevention
2. Hazard Identification
3. Exposure Monitoring and Health Surveillance
4. Injury and Illness Management (Case Management)
5. Emergency Response and Disaster Planning
6. International Travel
7. Ergonomics
8. Integrated Job Safety Analysis – identify job activities and associated occupational risk
factors and modes of remediation and accommodation

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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH BENEFITS
1. Helps to prevent occupational diseases like deafness, cancers, asthma
2. Reduce Absenteeism, cost of Absenteeism and ill heath
3. Prevents premature incapacity for work
4. Promote A Safe And Healthy Work Environment
5. Improved performance, Improved confidence
6. Improved staff relations and morale
7. Improved confidence
8. Increased production and productivity
9. Lower insurance premiums
10. Decrease employer liability
11. Less risk and cost of litigation
12. Retention of staff and build staff loyalty
13. Increased profit
14. Improved public image and PR
15. Compliance with legislation
16. Boost corporate and social responsibility
PRINCIPLE OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
• The occupational health programme should be in conformity with the provision of the
occupational safety and health
• Occupational healthcare is essentially an interdisciplinary team effort.
• Occupational health unit must be staffed by qualified, professional personnel, must have the
understanding and support of management and labour.
• Quality of work environment is of vital importance and is centre to the prevention of disease.
• Workers themselves must participate to prevent injury in achieving a common goal and high
level of wellness as for quality of life.

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• Occupational health professionals must understand the dynamics of work cooperatively.
• Occupational health is an essential component of community health, they are interrelated and
independent.

OCCUPATIONAL AND WORK RELATED DISEASES

Occupational diseases are conditions or disorders that result from the nature of your work.”
Occupational diseases are diseases caused by work or work environment
An occupational disease is one that is caused by work environment or activities that are part of your
occupation
Occupational diseases are diseases that are mainly caused by physical, chemical or biological
factors at work, and most often includes illnesses
work-related diseases, commonly used for diseases that are wholly or partially caused by working
conditions, or which are aggravated by working conditions
Occupational diseases caused by exposure to agents arising from work activities
1. Diseases caused by chemical agents
2. Diseases caused by physical agents
3. Biological agents and infectious or parasitic diseases
Occupational diseases by target organ systems
1. Respiratory diseases
2. Skin diseases
3. Musculoskeletal disorders
4. Mental and behavioural disorders
5. Occupational cancer
• Other diseases
• Miners’ nystagmus
CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES
OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES according to Health Affairs Regulation into 5 main groups are
divided :
1- (Group A) occupational diseases caused by chemical substances;.
2- (Group B) Occupational skin diseases;
3- (Group C) Pneumoconiosis and other diseases of the respiratory system; respiratory diseases,
such as byssinosis,Silicosis, asbestosis, occupational,asthma
4- (Group D) Professional communicable diseases;
5- (Group E) Occupational diseases caused by physical factors
1.Infectious and Parasitic Diseases Malaria, food poisoning, infectious hepatitis, legionnaire's
disease
2.Skin Diseases and Disorders Contact dermatitis, allergic dermatitis, rash caused by primary
irritants and sensitizers or poisonous plants, chrome ulcers
3.Respiratory Conditions due to Dust or Toxic Agents Silicosis, Asbestosis, pneumoconiosis,
allergic asthma, allergic rhinitis due to chemicals, dusts, gases, or fumes.
4.Poisoning (Systemic Effects of Toxic Materials) Poisoning by metals e.g lead, mercury, arsenic, or
other metals Poisoning by gas e.g carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide, or other gases Poisoning by
solvents Poisoning by pesticides Poisoning by other chemicals such as formaldehyde, plastics and
resins.

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 5. Upper limb and neck disorders e.g Mouse disease 6. Back problems and lower limbs disorder
7.Cancers and Malignant Blood Diseases Mesothelioma; bladder cancer; leukemia
8.Disorders due to Mental Stress Tension headache, depression.
9. Noise Induced Hearing Loss
10. Other Illnesses and Disorders Eye conditions due to dust and toxic agents e.g arc eye Heat
problems and radiation.
Physical Agent;-
1. Heat: Heat hyperpyrexia( heat stroke), heat exhaustion
2. Cold: Trench foot, frost bite
3. Light: Occupational cataract, miner’s nystagmus
4. Pressure: Caisson disease(decompression sickness), air embolism (when a gas bubble
enters a vein or artery.), blast (explosion)
5. Noise: Occupational deafness
6. Radiation: Cancer, leukaemia( Type of blood cancer), aplastic anaemia(body fails to
produce blood cells in sufficient numbers.), pancytopenia (lower-than-normal number of red
and white blood cells and platelets in the blood.)
7. Vibration ;-Hand-arm vibration Syndrome, body vibration syndrome
8. Dust; Pneumoconiosis is one of a group of interstitial lung disease caused by breathing in
certain kinds of dust particles that damage your lungs.
• Silicosis – from silica dust , Asbestosis – from asbestos dust , Coal workers
pneumoconiosis (anthracosis)- from coal dust, Anthraco-silicosis-silica mixed coal,
Berylliosis – from beryllium, Baritosis – from barium dust, Siderosis – from iron oxide
,Manganese poisoning, Cyanide poisoning- from cyanide, Tanosis – from tin oxide ,
Talcosis – from talc (hydrated magnesium silicate) , Bauxite fibrosis – from bauxite dust
Chemical agent
1. Respiratory disease
2. Leukemia(Type of blood cancer),
3. Asphyxiate (suspend animation in, or make unconscious through want of adequate oxygen,
presence of noxious agents, or other obstruction to normal breathing)
4. Gas poisoning
5. Pneumoconiosis
Biological Agent
1. Blood-borne diseases
2. Skin irritation
3. asthma
4. common cold
5. food-poisoning outbreaks
6. Brucellosis • Leptospirosis • Anthrax • Hydatidosis • Tetanus • Encephalitis • fungal
infections • Schistosomiasis
Psychosocial
1. Anxiety disorder
2. Depression (mood)
3. Hypertension
4. Cardiovascular disease

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 5. Industrial neurosis
6. peptic ulcer
Ergonomic
1. Musculoskeletal disorders
2. Cumulative trauma disorders
3. Stiffness
4. Loss of coordination

HISTORY OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH

Ancient times
Awareness of occupational health first sprouted in the ancient world. Hippocrates (c. 460 — c. 370
BC), an ancient Greek physician and 'father of medicine', observed lead poisoning in miners.
However, it wasn't until recent centuries that lead as an occupational health factor became a well-
known public issue. Pliny the Elder (c. 23 — c. 79 AD) was the first to recommend that miners use
respiratory protection.
The 1700s
In 1700, Bernardino Ramazzini, an Italian physician, published 'De IVIorbis Artificum Diatriba'
(Diseases of Workers') about occupational diseases.
The British Industrial Revolution (1760 - 1840)
The British Industrial Revolution (1760 — 1840) brought about a huge rise in work-related accidents
and illnesses, aria me following Key events occurred
• 1775 — The first occupational link to cancer was found (cancer was linked to high exposure to
soot).
• 1831 — Charles Turner Thackrah, a pioneer in the field of occupational health, wrote The Effects
of the Principal Arts Trades and Professions and of the Civic States and Habits of Living on Health
and Longevity: showing how interest and knowledge of occupational health were growing.
• 1833 onwards — Different industries were having inspectors appointed for the first time. For
example, in 1833, the first factory inspectors were appointed; in 1843, the Mines Inspectorate was
formed to investigate and improve working conditions in the mining industry; and in 1895, the
Quarry Inspectorate was formed.
The 1900s
In 1919, the International Labour Organisation was formed, which advance social justice and
promote decent work and decent treatment of workers by setting international labour standards.
In 1953, the British Occupational Hygiene Society was formed, which distributes information,
expertise and guidance in recognising, controlling and managing workplace health risks.
Regulation
1956, the Agriculture (Safety, Health and Welfare Provisions) Act was introduced,
In 1974, The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 was released
1974, the Health and Safety Commission was established. Shortly after this, the Health and Safety
Executive was formed in 1975 (these were merged in 2008).
Notification of Accidents and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1980; Health and Safety (First
Aid) Regulations 1981; Control of Industrial Major Accident Hazard Regulations 1984; Reporting of
Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1985; Noise at Work Regulations 1989;

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Electricity at Work Regulations 1989; The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations
1992.
The 2000S
The 2000s have seen more research, reviews, and reports on occupational health, and there has been
an increased focus on previously ignored aspects of health, such as mental health.
A sedentary lifestyle brought on by many modern working practices has recently been blamed for
many issues. 45% of women and 37% of men spend less than 30 minutes a day up on their feet at
work, and experts have described such inactivity as "one of the biggest" challenges in health. Heart
disease, type 2 diabetes, cancers and poor mental health have all been linked to sedentary behaviour.
INDIA
There are four main legislations that cover Occupational Safety and Health at workplace.
(i) The Factories Act, 1948 , covering factories wherein the enforcement of safety at
workplace is by the Chief Inspector of Factories in the respective states,
(ii) ) The Mines Act, 1952 and Mines Rules, 1955 for mining industry where the enforcement
is by the Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS) under Ministry of Labour &
Employment , Government of India,
(iii) i) The Dock Workers (Safety, Health and Welfare) Act, 1986 followed by notification of
the Dock Workers (Safety, Health and Welfare) Regulations, 1990 and
(iv) The Building & Other Construction Workers (Regulations of Employment and
Conditions of Service) Act, 1996 , covering construction workers at construction sites
The Indian Boilers Act, 1923 (amended2007)
The Dangerous Machines (Regulation) Act, 1983
The Motor Transport Workers Act, 1961 (amended 1986)
The Explosives Act, 1884 (amended 1983)
The Petroleum Act, 1934
The Inflammable Substances Act, 1952
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (amended 1991)
The Water (Preventions Control of Pollution) Act, (Amended 1988)
Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Rules, 1975.
The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 (Amended 2003)
The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (Amended 1987)
The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 (Amended 1992)
The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010
The National Green Tribunal (Practice & Procedure) Rules, 2011
The Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 (Amended 2013)
The Atomic Energy Act, 1962 (Amended 1987)
• The Atomic Energy (Radiation Protection) Rules, 2004
• The Atomic Energy (Working of Mines, Minerals and handling of Prescribed Substances) Rules,
1984
• The Atomic Energy (Safe Disposal of Radioactive Wastes) Rules, 1987
• The Atomic Energy (Radiation Processing of Food and Allied Products) Rules, 2012
• The Atomic Energy (Factories) Rules, 1996
The Electricity Act, 2003 (Amended 2007)
The Energy Conservation Act, 2001 (amended 2010)

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The Disaster Management Act, 2005
Two Regional Occupational Health Centres (ROHCs) have been set up in Bangalore (1977) and
Calcutta (1980)..
National Safety Council (NSC) was set up by the Ministry of Labour, Government of India (GOI) on
4th March, 1966 to generate, develop and sustain a voluntary movement on Safety, Health and
Environment (SHE) at the national level.
The Ministry of Labour and Employment, Government of India, approved the national policy on
safety, health and environment at workplaces in February 2009
The Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923,
Occupational health was one of the components of the National Health Policy in 1983 and 2002. The
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, launched a programme entitled
“National Programme for Control and Treatment of Occupational Diseases” in 1998–99.
National Policy on Safety, Health and Environment at Workplace, Ministry of Labour and
Employment, Government of India (2009)

CHARACTERISTICS OF OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES

• The clinical and pathological presentation are identical to that of non-occupational diseases;
e.g. asthma
• Occupational diseases may occur at varying times from 30 weeks to 1 year
• Occupational disease may occur after the termination of exposure. Eg: which can occur 10 or
20 years after the exposure.
• The clinical manifestations of occupational disease are related to the dose and timing of
exposure; e.g. acute or chronic
• Occupational factors can act in combination with non-occupational factors to produce
disease; e.g. exposure to asbestos (five-fold increase in lung cancer ); and the long-term
smoking of cigarettes (increases the risk by 50 and 70 fold.
• Occupational disease can also occur in the form of disability or mental health problems.
• It is needed for the specialized organizations in this field for the diagnosis of occupational
diseases.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS
Under the Occupational Health and Safety Act, occupational hazard or illness is defined as a
condition that results from exposure in a workplace to a physical, chemical or biological agent to the
extent that the normal physiological mechanisms are affected and the health of the worker is
impaired.
Occupational hazard is any material, processes, activities or situations that can result in accidents or
diseases at the workplace.
Occupational illness develops after long exposure to ergonomic hazards, disease-causing bacteria
and viruses, chemicals or dust over a period of time because of unhygienic and unhealthy conditions
at workplace
Depending upon the occupation an industrial worker may be exposed to five types of hazards:-
Physical Hazards ; Heat, cold ,Light ,Noise, Vibration ,Ultraviolet radiation Ionizing
radiation,pressure electricity
Chemical Hazards ;acid ,base, fumes, chemical, solvent, gases , dust, mist, metal and their
component

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 Biological ;- virus, bacteria, Fungi, Insect, animal , Worm,
Mechanical Hazards ; May cause due to protruding moving parts of machinery. • ,due to own
carelessness
Psychosocial Hazards;-Frustration ,Lack of job satisfaction ,Poor human relationship ,Emotional
tensions e

ADVERSE HEALTH EFFECT OF NOISE

Occupational Noise Exposure in the work environment that has potential to be hazardous. Excessive
noise is an occupational hazard with many adverse effects, not only to the workers involved with
noisy operations but also to those around them.
1. .Occupational deafness ;Noise-related hearing loss has been one of the most prevalent
occupational health concerns Its effects can lead to temporary or permanent hearing
damage and can impair workers' efficiency.
Auditory effects It includes:-
Temporary hearing loss
Permanent hearing loss
Acoustic trauma- loss of hearing within a short time due to high noise level like bomb
explosive, accident and sudden bursting.
2. Rringing in your ears (tinnitus).
3. Occupational stress;-. Persistent noise in the work environment can be a stressor even at
quite low levels.
4. Cardiovascular diseases;- Arterial hypertension(blood vessels in the lungs are narrowed,
blocked or destroyed), Ischemic Heart diseases ( heart problems caused by narrowed heart
arteries.), Stroke
5. high blood pressure/ hypertension
6. Hyperacidity
7. Palpitations

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 8. nervous-disorder, headache, lung problems and breathing complications, indigestion,
peptic ulcer, backbone curving
9. . Sleep disorder
10. Mental illness
11. Loud noise can create physical and psychological stress, reduce productivity, interfere
with communication and concentration, and contribute to workplace accidents and
injuries by making it difficult to hear warning signals

ADVERSE HEALTH EFFECT OF VIBRATION

Workers in a number of different occupational sectors are exposed to workplace vibration on a daily
basis. Exposure to vibration could have a negative effect on the health of employees.
1. Regular exposure to vibration causes both vascular and neural disorders
2. .Low frequency effects (2-20Hz)- The effects of those include nausea, Vomiting, sweat
3. .High frequency effect (20-2000Hz)- the effect of these includes Vasomotor disturbance
4. It could damage joints, muscles, circulation and sensory nerves.
5. Occupational exposure to vibration has been associated with an increased risk of
musculoskeletal pain in the back, neck, hands, shoulders and hips.
6. Diseases of spinal column: These are very common and associated with long-term exposure
to whole-body vibration
7. It may also contribute to the development of peripheral and cardiovascular disorders
8. Digestive system diseases /gastrointestinal problems.
9. In addition, there are more recent data suggesting that occupational exposure to vibration
may increase the risk of developing certain cancer

ADVERSE HEALTH EFFECT OF COLD

1. Trench foot,
2. Frost bite
3. Reynaud’s disease,; is when blood vessels in your fingers and toes temporarily overreact to
low temperatures or stress

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4. Erythrocyanosis, ;- A condition caused by exposure to cold and characterized by swelling of
the limbs and the appearance of irregular red-blue patches on the skin, ...
5. Chilblains,;- are the painful inflammation of small blood vessels in your skin that occur in
response to repeated exposure to cold but not freezing air
6. Gangrene;- refers to the death and rotting of skin tissue and skin cells. The two main forms
of gangrene are known as dry and wet gangrene.
7. Hypothermia is a condition in which the body temperature starts dropping due to the loss of
heat and is unable to produce heat as fast as it loses it.
8. Respiratory: increased mucus secretion, shortness of breath, wheezing, cough
9. Cardiovascular: chest pain, arrhythmia, shortness of breath
10. Peripheral circulation: colour change on fingers and toes, pain, numbness, tickling
sensation
11. Musculoskeletal: pain, stiffness, swelling, restricted movement, paraesthesia, muscle
weakness
12. Dermatological: itching, skin eruption, pale skin, erythema, oedema

ADVERSE HEALTH EFFECT OF HEAT STRESS

Exposure to extreme heat can result in occupational illnesses and injuries. Workers who are
exposed to extreme heat or work in hot environments may be at risk of heat stress. Workers at
risk of heat stress include outdoor workers and workers in hot environments such as firefighters,
bakery workers, farmers, construction workers, miners, boiler room workers, factory workers,
and others.
Heat stress can result in
1. Heat hyperpyrexia( heat stroke),; Heat stroke is the most serious heat-related illness. It
occurs when the body can no longer control its temperature: the body’s temperature rises
rapidly, the sweating mechanism fails, and the body is unable to cool down. Heat stroke
can cause permanent disability or death if the person does not receive emergency
treatment.
2. Heat exhaustion. Heat exhaustion is the body’s response to an excessive loss of water
and salt, usually through excessive sweating. Symptoms include: Heavy sweating
(Eventually sweating may stop) Weakness Dizziness Nausea Headache Muscle cramps
3. Burns, ;-are tissue damage that results from heat,
4. Heat syncope,;- This refers to a fainting episode that someone can experience in high
environmental temperatures, and occurs when an individual in a hot environment does
not have adequate blood flow to the brain, causing the person to lose conciousness.
5. Heat cramps,;- are painful muscle spasms caused by dehydration and electrolyte loss.
6. Prickly heat, ; Heat rash is a skin irritation caused by excessive sweating during hot,
humid weather .The rash may appear as blisters or red lumps.
7. Decreased efficiency,

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ADVERSE HEALTH EFFECT OF IMPROPER ILLUMINATION
1. Acute effects
Poor illumination:-
1. Eye strain
2. Double vision
3. Lacrimation
4. Conjunctivitis
5. Headache
6. Eye pain
7. Lacrimation
8. Congestion around cornea
9. Eye fatigue
10. headache,
Excessive brightness
Effects due to glare :- 1.Discomfort, 2.annoyance 3.visual fatigue 4.Blurring of vision
Chronic Effect
2. Chronic effect
1. Miner’s nystagmus

ADVERSE HEALTH EFFECT OF THERMAL RADIATION

Thermal radiation is characterized by the emission of electromagnetic waves from the material
(variation of its internal energy). Depending on the temperature of the material, it transmits radiation
ranging from ultraviolet to far-field infrared
The thermal radiation effects that people experience depend upon the length of time they are exposed
to a specific thermal radiation level
Experimental data show that exposure to a 37.5 kW/m2 dose of thermal radiation for 60 s is
sufficient to have a 100% probability of causing death thermal radiation: 10 kW/(sq m) (potentially
lethal within 60 seconds) 5 kW/(sq m) (second-degree burns within 60 seconds), 2 kW/(sq m) (pain
within 60 seconds)
1.Skin Burn ;, begins to occur when the temperature at the basal layer exceeds 44 °C
First-degree burns affect only the outer layer of the skin. They cause pain, redness, and
swelling.
Second-degree burns affect both the outer and underlying layer of skin. They cause pain,
redness, swelling, and blistering. They are also called partial thickness burns.
Third-degree burns affect the deep layers of skin. They are also called full thickness burns.
They cause white or blackened, burned skin. The skin may be numb.
2. high pulse rates,
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3.Increased and laboured respiration,
4. Increased sweating
5.Iincreased body temperature.
6. Loss of eyesight
FIRE HAZARD
A hazard is an agent that can cause harm or damage to humans, property, or the environment
Fire hazards are conditions that favor fire development or growth
Fire Hazard ;- Any actions, materials, or conditions that might cause a fire to start or that might
increase the size or severity of a fire are called fire hazards
Fire hazards are workplace hazards that either involve the presence of a flame, increase the
probability that an uncontrolled fire will occur, or increase the severity of a fire should one occur.
• Fire hazards include:
1. Flames
2. Sparks
3. Hot objects
4. Flammable chemicals
5. Static Electricity
6. Chemicals accelerants, which can increase a fire’s rate of spread
FIRE TRIANGLE/ COMBUSTION TRIANGLE
• The triangle illustrates the three elements a fire needs to ignite: heat, fuel, and an oxygen
1. a source of ignition (heat),
2. source of fuel (something that burns) and
3. oxygen:
• Without sufficient heat, a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue
• Without fuel, fire cannot begin, or fire will stop
• Without sufficient oxygen, a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue.
• The fire extinguishes by removing any one of the elements in the fire triangle

SOURCE OF FIRE HAZARD

sources of fuel include
LIQUID: gasoline, petrol, diesel, kerosene, LPG, motor oil, cleaning solvents, paints (oil base),
linseed oil, mineral oil
Chemical,;- acetone, ether, pentane, toluene, diethyl ether, alcohols, benzene, ethanol petroleum
ether

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SOLID; wood, paper, plastic, rubber or foam, loose packaging materials, waste rubbish and
furniture, cloth. metallic sodium and potassium, oily fabrics, processed metals, Aluminum powder,
Camphor, Magnesium Matches, Naphthalene, Nitrocellulose Phosphorus,Sulfur
GASES ;- propane, hydrogen, butane, methane, ethylene, acetylene, ammonia, ethane silane
ammonia, carbon monoxide. hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen chloride, and acrolein.
sources of oxygen include the air around us.
SOURCES OF IGNITION INCLUDE
1. Heaters, Boiler, ovens/ blast furnace
2. Lighting,
3. Electric spark and electric wire short circuit
4. Naked flames- welding, burner, cutting torch
5. Malfunctioning ,failure of electrical equipment and system ,
6. Smokers’ materials (cigarettes, matches etc.),
7. Hot surface,
8. Hot Engine,
9. Anything else that can get very hot or cause sparks;
10. Lightning strike,
11. Trash Containers
12. Spontaneous Heating

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The Top Causes of Workplace Fires
1. Faulty equipment/Faulty Electrics –
2. Heating Equipment:
3. Mechanical Friction:
4. Faulty wiring system/Overloading Power Sockets:
5. Hot work
6. Flammable Gas, liquid and solid
7. Improper storage of chemicals
8. Poor house keeping
9. Proximity Hazards:
10. Smoking:
11. Combustibles on site
12. Human Error
13. Arson

EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL FIRE/ FIRE HAZARD

DIRECT EFFECT:
(a) fatality
(b) minor injury
(C) major injury
(d) property damage
(e) Business closure
INDIRECT EFFECTS:
(a) For the injured person
1. loss of earning or earning capacity
2. Disrupted family life.
3. disrupted personal life, and
4. other consequences e.g. pain & suffering
(b) For the company:
1. injury costs
2. Production loss costs.
3. Property damage costs.
4. Reduction in employee morale.
5. Poor reputation as a result of adverse media publicity.
6. Poor customer relations following adverse media publicity.
7. Lost time – supervisors, workers and others.
8. Product damage cost.
9. First aid and medical cost.
10. Increased employer’s liability premium.
11. Legal cost, e.g. fines imposed by court, legal representation fees
12. Cost of changes in practice arising from prosecution or as a result of enforcement action, e.g.
prohibition or improvement notice
13. Training cost e.g. retraining of injured employee or training of replacement Labour.

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FIRE PREVENTION
Fire prevention involves proactive steps taken to reduce fire hazard so that fire does not have
chance to ignite
GOAL
• Life Safety ; The primary goal of fire safety efforts is to protect people from injury and to
prevent loss of life.
• Property Protection ; The secondary goal of fire safety is to prevent property damage
• Protection of Operations; By preventing fires and limiting damage we can assure that work
operations will continue.
THE STRATEGY OF PREVENTING A FIRE
• A fire must have three things to ignite and maintain combustion: Fuel, Heat and Oxygen
• The basic strategy of fire prevention is to control or isolate sources of fuel and heat in order
to prevent combustion.
• If all three are not present in sufficient quantities a fire will not ignite or a fire will not be able
to sustain combustion
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FIRE PREVENTION
• Prevention of the starting of fire.
• Prevention of the spreading of fire.
• Prevention of water damage
BASIC STEPS
1. Well planned design and layout ( Construction, Electrical, Mechanical)
2. Proper selection of machine, equipment, parts and material
3. Proper maintenance of machine and equipment
4. Proper ventilation system
5. Proper storage and handling of flammable and combustible Chemical and material
6. Keep potential fuels and heat sources apart
7. Good house keeping
8. Provision and maintenance of fire extinguishers,
9. Fire Alarm Devices ; Provision and maintenance of fire detection and alarm, sensor,
sprinkler system
10. Proper training of personals
11. Fire risk assessment ,Fire Audit, Fire drill,
12. properly designed, installed, and maintained, electrical systems, Do not overload electrical
sockets, Fix faulty electrical equipment
13. Fire safety policy, Fire Prevention Plan , management system and Fire safety inspections
14. No smoking policy
15. List all major fire hazards, proper handling and storage procedures for hazardous materials
(which are flammable), potential ignition causes, and the type of fire protection equipment
necessary to control each hazard.
16. Procedures to control accumulations of flammable and combustible waste materials.
17. Procedures for regular maintenance of safeguards installed on heat-producing equipment to
prevent the accidental ignition of combustible materials.
18. The names or job titles of employees responsible for maintaining equipment to prevent or
control sources of ignition of fires.

16
 19. The names or job titles of employees responsible for the control of fuel source hazards.
20. Fire Safety Housekeeping
21. Carry out regular fire safety checks
22. Designated individuals, typically a safety committee or supervisors, are responsible for
ensuring compliance with the company’s Fire Safety Programs and communicating
procedures with all employees
FIRE CLASSIFICATION

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FIRE FIGHTING
Firefighting the occupation of attempting to control and extinguish fires.
Firefighting is the act of attempting to prevent the spread of and extinguish significant
unwanted fires
The fire extinguishes by removing any one of the elements in the fire triangle
1. Without sufficient heat, a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue
2. Without fuel, fire cannot begin, or fire will stop
3. Without sufficient oxygen, a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue.

PRINCIPLE OF FIRE FIGHTING

Fire extinction, in principle, consists of the limitation or removal of one or more fire elements and
the methods of extinguishing classified as follow; –
1. Starvation (fuel)
2. Smothering (oxygen)
3. Cooling ( heat)
4. Interrupt the chain reaction
Starvation ;- Defines as the reduction or removal of the fuel supply.
If the unburn fuel is taken away from the immediate vicinity of a fire, the fire does not extend to the
unburn fuel. If it is in a liquid form or gas, turn off supply valve or shut down the supply of fuel, and
therefore extinguish the fire
Smothering ;- Reducing the oxygen level in the air to below 16%, which will then die when the
surrounding oxygen is used up.
The extinction of fire by shutting of doors, hatches and appropriates ventilation valves or shutters is a
result of smothering. Other method is by application of extinguishing agents such as foam, carbon
dioxide, dry chemical powder and dry powder for metal fires
Cooling ;- The most commonly used method is to removed the heat.
Water is a very effective heat absorber and radiation feedback when properly applied.Cooling: to
reduce the temperature of the fuel below its ignition temperature. This is direct attack on the heat
side of the fire tetrahedron.
Inhibiting the chemical chain reaction/ Interrupt chain reaction; Fire can be extinguished by
breaking the chain reaction.
It normally direct attack the molecules structure or breaking down of compounds formed during the
chain reaction process.
The extinguishing agents commonly used to attack the chain reaction and inhabit combustion are dry
powders

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FIRE FIGHTING METHOD/SYSTEM
1. Direct Attack
2. Indirect attack
3. Combined attack
Direct Attack
• A method whereby the fire is attacked immediately adjacent to the burning fuel.
• If you apply water directly onto the burning materials, you are conducting a direct attack
• where personnel and resources work at, or very close to, the burning edge of the fire.
• Firefighting crews aggressively attack the fire either by applying water or extinguishing the
fire using 'hand tools' and 'beaters‘
Indirect Attack Technique
• A method of suppression in which the control line is located some considerable distance
away from the fire's active edge.
• In this method of attack, the fuel is separated from the path of the approaching fire.
• When heat or other conditions deny access to space
• May improve condition to permit reentry for direct attack.
• This technique is usually applied on high-intensity fires where fire fighters cannot approach
the front of the fire due to heat and/or smoke conditions
• If you are applying water into the compartment to achieve cooling of the environment or to
bank the stream into the area, you are using an indirect attack
• Generally done in the case of a fast-spreading or high-intensity fire and to utilize natural or
constructed firebreaks or fuel breaks and favorable breaks in the topography.
The Combination Attack Technique
• The combination attack uses both the direct and indirect techniques in combating fire at the
same time.
• In this method, the direct attack here is used to attack the fire itself while the aspect of the
indirect attack combats the gases that are overhead.
• Uses indirect to cool atmosphere, then direct to extinguish
• Only use enough water to control the fire.
• These two methods both ensure that fire is extinguished quickly and the risk of it spreading
is minimized.

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 Fire fighting methods are
1. Standpipe and hose systems
2. Automatic Sprinkler Systems
3. Foam / Chemical Suppression
4. Gaseous Fire Suppression
5. portable fire extinguisher
6. Robotic fire fighting
7. UAV / Drone fire fighting
8. Satellite techniques

STANDPIPE AND HOSE SYSTEMS

• Standpipe and hose systems in buildings allow the occupants or fire service personnel to
suppress a fire without further help. Standpipe systems are an arrangement of piping, valves,
hose connections, and related equipment installed in a building in a fixed manner.
• The systems may or may not have hoses permanently attached.
• Water supplies may or may not be continually provided to standpipe systems.
• Fire department personnel trained in manual fire suppression methods are the ones who
primarily use standpipe systems. Many standpipe systems no longer have occupant hoselines
(small diameter 1-1/2 inch).
• The fixed piping of a standpipe system in a building allows the fire service to connect its hose
lines into a pressurized water source near the fire floor
• Water Supplies; municipal or private water mains, gravity tanks, pressure tanks, fire pumps.

AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER SYSTEMS

1. Wet pipe system
• Wet pipe sprinkler systems are the most common form of fire sprinkler.
• Wet pipe systems use closed automatic sprinklers attached to a piping system containing
water under pressure at all times.
• This is the traditional type of fire sprinkler where the sprinkler pipes are filled with
pressurized water that will immediately discharge when a fire occurs.
• When the temperature at the ceiling gets hot enough the glass bulb or fusible link in a
sprinkler will break
• Wet pipe sprinkler systems are the most reliable and cost effective.
2. Dry pipe system
• Dry pipe systems are very similar to wet pipe systems with one major difference.
• The pipe is not constantly filled with water. Instead, the water is held behind a dry pipe valve
usually some distance away from where the sprinklers are located.
• Like a wet pipe system, when the temperature at the ceiling becomes hot enough, the glass
bulb or fusible link of the sprinkler breaks.
• However, in this case, water isn’t immediately available because the pipe is not water filled.
• Instead, air is released from the now open sprinkler head. This creates a drop in pressure
causing the dry pipe valve to open and water to fill the system. Water will then flow from the
open sprinkler head.

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3. Pre action systems
• employ closed automatic sprinklers attached to a piping system which contains air, which
may or may not be under pressure.
• When a fire occurs, a fire detecting device, such as a smoke or heat detector, activates and
causes the water control valve to open and water to flow into the pipe system
• The difference, however, is that water is held from piping by an electrically operated valve,
known as a pre-action valve. Valve operation is controlled by independent flame, heat, or
smoke detection.
4. Deluge Systems
• Deluge sprinkler systems employ automatic sprinklers which are open at all times.
• When a fire occurs, a fire detecting device, usually a heat detector, activates and causes the
deluge valve to open.
• Water then will flow into the piping and discharge through all the open sprinklers.
5. Vortex system
• The Vortex Fire Suppression System uses both water and nitrogen homogeneously to
extinguish fires.
• This technology uses a small water drop that will absorb more heat while the nitrogen will
reduce the oxygen feeding the fire

FOAM / CHEMICAL SUPPRESSION

• Foam is used whenever there is a possibility of a liquid fire.
• The Foam will mix with water and then expand over the liquid that is on fire, cool the fire,
and finally will be extinguished.
• The distribution of a foam blanket over a flammable liquid will extinguish a fire by
eliminating the fire's oxygen supply and provide a cooling effect on the burning fuel.
• Foam is also available for the protection of hydrocarbon fuels and polar solvent fuels such as
ethanol

GASEOUS FIRE SUPPRESSION

Inert gases Gaseous fire suppression is a term to describe the use of inert gases and chemical agents
to extinguish a fire. Inert gasses work by removing the oxygen in the hazard to a point where it will
not support a fire

ROBOTIC FIRE FIGHTING

• The Firefighting Robot is a compact and portable emergency responder robot that assists
firemen in fighting high-rise fires, especially in highly dangerous environments where it is
not safe for people to enter
• Fixed firefighting robotic systems, like automatic fire sprinklers and alarms, are used in
heavily populated and hazardous areas for rapidly extinguishing any threat.
• These are usually simpler systems relying mostly on UV or IR sensors and, as the name
suggests, are fixed.
• Mobile robotic firefighting systems are another type, mostly in the form of remote controlled
vehicles affixed with fire suppression tools like water or foam hoses.

21
 • These are capable of travelling into areas unsafe for people through an array of sensors,
visual camera, IR and more technology that transmits information for navigation to a remote
operator.
• Purpose;-
1. analyzing and locating fires,
2. conducting search and rescue,
3. monitoring hazardous variables and
4. The primary task of fire control and suppression.
DRONE/ UAV UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE
• In the case of a structure fire, when first arriving on the scene, the drone can be deployed to
assess the scene, before the firefighters are put in harms way.
• When equipped with a thermal camera, the drone can show operators where the hotspots are,
and also have the ability to see through smoke and in low light conditions.
• The thermal camera can then allow operators to monitor crew members and conditions,
improving efficiency and safety.
• The drone can also be equipped with a spotlight to assist firefighters in dark or low light
conditions. After the smoke has cleared, drones can also aid in the critical work of assessing
the damage, whether it be from a fire or other natural disasters.
• Drones allow firefighters to quickly and effectively scout out dangerous fires, observe and
monitor a large blaze and the surrounding area and more.
Purpose;-
1. analyzing and locating fires,
2. conducting search and rescue,
3. monitoring hazardous variables and
4. the primary task of fire control and suppression.
• It can be used for
1. Wet fire fighting
2. Fire fighting drone (UAV) with dry powder fire extinguishing agent
3. combined

PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

A Fire extinguisher is a device which can be used to control a fire. A fire extinguisher is an external
fire safety system useful to extinguish or control minor fires, often in emergency cases
A "portable fire extinguisher“ ;-an appliance, apparatus, container or device that is designed to be, or
is capable of being, readily moved and that contains or produces any liquid, powder or gas usable
for the purpose of extinguishing fire. This definition includes items for recharge or refill.
THE PRINCIPLES ON WHICH FIRE EXTINGUISHERS WORK ARE:
• Basics principles on which fire extinguishers works:
1. Smothering ;- Reducing the oxygen level in the air to below 16%, which will then die when
the surrounding oxygen is used up.
2. Cooling: It involves the process of reducing heat or removal of heat.
3. Starvation: It involves the removal of fuel from the scene of fire
1) the cooling effect of water;
2) the fire-extinguishing effect of carbon dioxide;

22
3) the blanketing or shutting-off effect of foam;
4) the smothering effect of solid substance; and
5) the combining of more than one effect.
TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
There are two different types of fire extinguishers:
1. cartridge-operated ; A cartridge-operated extinguisher has just powder/agent inside, and
there is a separate pressure cartridge that has to be activated to pressurize the extinguisher
2. stored-pressure. ; A stored pressure extinguisher has the agent and pressure mixed in the
same container inside of the extinguishe
Fire extinguishers further categorize into
1. Hand-held
2. Trolley mounted
3. Cart-mounted (also called wheeled extinguishers).
Fire extinguisher types
1. Portable fire extinguisher
2. Semi-portable fire extinguisher
3. Fixed type fire fighting equipment
The different types of hand portable fire extinguishers are
1. Water Extinguisher
2. Soda-acid extinguishers;
3. Foam extinguishers
a) Chemical foam extinguishers, and
b) Mechanical or air-foam extinguishers;
4. Carbon dioxide snow extinguishers;
5. Dry chemical (dry powder) extinguishers; and
6. ABC , Multipurpose dry chemical (dry powder) extinguisher
WATER FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
• Water based extinguishers are essentially filled with water and use compressed air to help this
come out.
• Some will also have an additive that will help make them more effective.
• They work to cool the fire, removing heat from the fire triangle and will effectively stop any
fire that has started.
• Water extinguishers are very common and should be used on solid materials only. This can
include paper, wood or any other solid fuel
• Used for class A fire( solid fire)
• fire extinguisher of 9Ltr are used

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 • Cylinder; made up of solid drawn steel and internally zinc coated
• The outer container is filled with water and fitted with a CO2 74mg at 36 bar pressure
Cartridge (inner container) which forces the water out of the container with pressure.
• To operate the extinguisher, first, the safety pin/clip is released.
• When pressure is applied on the plunger, the CO2 cartridge ruptures and forces the water out
of the extinguisher.
• Use for:
Organic materials such as:
Paper and cardboard
Fabrics and textiles
Wood and coal
• Do not use for:
Fires involving electrical equipment
Kitchen fires
Flammable gas and liquids
Procedure to use
1. Identify the fire (Class A)
2. Carry the extinguisher near the fire
3. Keep extinguisher towards the fire
4. Remove the safety pin and strike the plunger to pierce CO2 cartridge
5. When it will pierce the pressure created on the upper part of the container and water from the
dip tube will pass and be thrown as a jet
6. direct jet towards the fire

SODA-ACID FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

• Sodium bicarbonate (soda) and sulphuric acid are the prime components of the extinguisher.
They combine to form a chemical reaction to produce carbon dioxide gas, which is used to
smother the fire.

• The extinguisher consists of a conical or cylindrical sheet steel container charged with basic
sodium bicarbonate solution,8 lt water, 400 g NaHCo3

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 • a hermetically-sealed acid phial or bottle (sulphuric acid)

• a perforated acid bottle metal cage

• Asiphon or discharge tube,

• a nozzle, and a plunger knob assembly.

• The extinguisher is operated by breaking the acid phial with the plunger knob, permitting the
acid and soda solutions to mix and directing the nozzle at the same time towards the fire with
the extinguisher held almost horizontally
• The chemical reaction produces carbon dioxide in such a quantity that a pressure of about 6.5
bar(g) is developed which forces the whole of the contents of the extinguisher to discharge
on to the tire.

•
• carbon dioxide gas which forms a blanket around the burning substance and cuts off the
supply of air to the burning substance. This stops the process of burning and fire gets
extinguished. fire by cooling action,
• A soda acid type fire extinguisher is recommended for putting out fires
which involve burning of class A fires.
FOAM FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
• This type of extinguisher produces, when operated, a thick foamy fluid either
a)Chemical foam extinguishers, ; by reaction between two chemical solutions
b) Mechanical or air-foam extinguishers ;by stirring powerfully an aqueous solution of a foam
forming compound by means of compressed air (mechanical or air-foam type).
How foam extinguishers work:

25
 • When directed against a fire, the foam spreads over the entire fire covering or blanketing it
thus cutting of the oxygen supply
• with water extinguishers, foam extinguishers have a cooling effect on the fuel.
Chemical foam Fire Extinguishers
• The chemicals used in this foam type fire extinguisher are sodium bicarbonate and
aluminium sulphate.
• The main container is filled with sodium bicarbonate, whereas the inner container is filled
with aluminium sulphate.
• The extinguisher is operated by inverting it, permitting the acid and basic solutions to mix,
and directing the nozzle which may be fitted with a short length of hose on to the fire to be
extinguished.
• The chemical reaction produces gelatinous aluminium hydroxide and carbon di oxide
• The carbon dioxide is liberated in a state of very fine bubbles which are maintained in that
state by the foam-forming compound.
• The light gelatinous precipitate has the effect of making the bubbles more tenacious and
permanent thereby giving very stable- foam.
• The excess carbon dioxide under pressure serves to force the foam in a stream out of the
nozzle.
• .

Mechanical or air-foam Fire Extinguishers

• air-foam extinguisher consists of a cylindrical container filled with an aqueous solution of a
foam-forming compound or foam concentrate, a siphon tube, a mixing chamber, a discharge
hose, a nozzle , a safety valve, and a compressed-air cylinder fitted with a cylinder valve
• one hand wheel type and accommodated in the centre of the container.
• The extinguisher is operated by turning on compressed air by means or hand wheel. The
compressed air which is at a pressure of l50 bar(g) is reduced to a pressure of 8 bar(g) by a
reducing valve before it exerts Pressure on the top of the solution forcing it up the siphon
tube and the mixing chamber
• A part of the compressed air flowing through a hole in and lube at its top mixes with the
solution in the mixing chamber the resulting mixture is converted into a very fine-bubbled air
foam in the discharge hose and forced out of the nozzle.

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Foam extinguishers are especially used for fighting fires involving combustible and flammable
liquids. They are not recommended for use in fighting electrical fires .
Use for:
• Organic materials such as: Paper and cardboard,
• Fabrics and textiles
• Wood and coal
• Flammable liquids, like paint and petrol
Do not use for:
• Kitchen fires
• Fires involving electrical equipment
• Flammable metals
CARBON DIOXIDE PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
• A carbon dioxide snow extinguisher consists essentially of a light steel cylinder of about 8-
litrecapacity filled with a charge of 6 kg liquid carbon dioxide under a pressure of 56 to 63
bar(absolut).
• The cylinder valve which may be of hand wheel, lever, Or handgrip type is fitted with a tube
that nearly reaches the bottom of the cylinder and is also connected by means of a short
length of high-pressure hose (about 1 m long) either directly or through an extension pipe to a
snow pipe or discharge horn.

• When the valve is opened, a portion of the liquid carbon dioxide evaporates at an orifice at
the closed end of the horn by expansion to gas.
• This chills the horn to low temperatures. When the gaseous carbon dioxide further expands
by streaming through the horn to the atmospheric pressure, the remaining carbon dioxide is
converted into loose snow due to intense cooling (-79°C) in the horn.

27
 • Thus, the extinguishing stream consists of an undercooled carbon dioxide gas with finely
divided now.
• A safety device on the cylinder valve prevents undue excess pressure in the steel cylinder.
• How CO2 extinguishers work:
• CO2 extinguishers suffocate fires by displacing the oxygen the fire needs to burn.
• Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers extinguish fire by taking away the oxygen element of the
fire triangle, and by removing the heat with a very cold discharge.
Use for:
• Carbon dioxide extinguishers are mainly used for class B(flammable liquid fire) or class C
fires( gaseous fire)
• They are not used for accommodation areas and confined spaces because of the gas used in
lethal.
• – Flammable liquids, like paint and petrol
– Electrical fires
• Do not use for:
– Kitchen fires – especially chip-pan fires
– Combustible materials like paper, wood or textiles
– Flammable metals
DRY POWDER FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
• This type of extinguisher uses a fire-quenching chemical powder with bicarbonate base for its
action
• The dry chemical commercially available is made up of one or more of five basic powders:
sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, urea potassium bicarbonate, potassium chloride
and monoammonium phosphate with various additives to improve their storage and flow
characteristic.
• Sodium bicarbonate powder is used to extinguish almost all types of fires.
• Chief among the additives are metallic stearates and tri calcium phosphate.
• Potassium bicarbonate-base dry chemical has a faster extinguishing action than the sodium
bicarbonate base type
• Dry powder extinguisher contains sodium bicarbonate powder in the outer container.
• A small container with carbon dioxide is placed beneath the plunger mechanism.
• When the plunger is pushed, it releases the carbon dioxide gas, which in turn forces the dry
powder out of the discharge nozzle.
•

28
How extinguishers work
• When used on a fire, the dry chemical causes the flame to go out at once.
• The exact mechanism and chemistry of the extinguishing action are not definitely known.
• Dry powder extinguishers smother fires by forming a barrier between the fuel and the source
of oxygen.
• Smothering, cooling, radiation Shielding and chain-breaking reactions in the combustion
zone are con my responsible for the extinguishing action of the dry chemical.
Use for:
1. Organic materials such as: Paper and cardboard, Fabrics and textiles, Wood and coal
2. Flammable liquids, like paint and petrol
3. Flammable gases, like liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and acetylene
4. Fires involving electrical equipment up to 1000v
5. Specialist dry powder extinguishers are only used on flammable metals, such as titanium and
magnesium.
Do not use for:
1. Fires involving cooking oil
2. Fires involving electrical equipment over 1000v
3. in enclosed spaces, such as offices or residential properties

ABC, MULTI PURPOSE DRY CHEMICAL (DRY POWDER) EXTINGUISHERS

• "ABC" fire extinguishers are filled with a fine, yellow powder..
• ABC or Multi-Purpose extinguishers comprise of a special fluidized and siliconized mono
ammonium phosphate dry chemical and additive which improve storage and flow
characteristics. The greatest portion of this powder is composed of monoammonium
phosphate
• The extinguishers are pressurized with nitrogen.
• It has little cooling effect on the ire but its extinguishing action is considered as due to the
inhibiting effect of the liberated ammonia and the formation of an adhering glassy crust of
metaphosphoric acid over the fire in ordinary combustible materials, which tends to retard
further combustion.
• The mechanism causing a flammable liquid fire to go out is believed to be a chain-breaking
reaction

29
 • The extinguishers may be either of the stored-pressure type (the charge under constant
pressure of the expellant gas) or of the cylinder or cartridge. operated type.
• The working pressure of the stored-pressure extinguishers at ordinary temperature using
carbon dioxide expellant is 21 bar(g).
• The extinguishers are effective against glow fires, flaming fires, flammable liquid fires, and
electrical fires
• The most widely used type of fire extinguisher is the multipurpose dry chemical that is
effective on Class A, B, and C fires.
• An extinguisher with an ABC rating is suitable for use with fires involving ordinary
combustibles, flammable liquids and energized electrical equipment
• These fire extinguishers are economical and extremely versatile.
• They are ideal for tackling the majority of fire risks typically found in commercial, industrial
and domestic applications.

FIRE EXTINGUISHER BALL

• Fire extinguisher ball is a fire fighting equipment which is operated automatically.
• The ABC dry chemical powder is filled in the fire extinguisher ball, as an agent for
extinguishing the fire which is not harmful for the human beings
• Fire extinguisher ball is a self-activated fire fighting device, we just have to throw it on the
fire, after which it gets activated and extinguishes the fire.
• When we throw a fire extinguisher ball on the fire, the thread inside the ball catches fire and
help the bomb to blast.
• When the bomb blast, the ABC dry chemical powder inside the ball spreads on the fire and
extinguishes it.

30
FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT
FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT
• Fire fighting equipment is9. Fire First Aid Kits
used fight with the fire i.e we10. Fire Pump
can use fire fighting11. Fire Hoses
equipment to extinguish the
fire. 12. Fire Buckets
• Fire Fighting Equipment list 13. Fire Suppression System
1. Fire Fighting Vehicle 14. Fire doors
2. Heat Detector/ Smoke 15. Fire and Welding Blankets
detector 16. Flamezorb
3. Fire Alarm Systems 17. Sprinklers
4. Fire Hydrant System 18. Fire Cabinet
5. Fire Extinguishers 19. Fire Ball
6. Fire Suit 20. shovel, hammer, fire axe,
7. Firefighter gloves cutters, hooks
8. Emergency and Safety Sign 21. emergency lights
•

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Fire Fighting Vehicle
• The vehicles which are designed for firefighting are called fire fighting apparatus
• A fire engine (also known in some places as a fire truck, fire lorry or nee-naw) is a road
vehicle (usually a truck) that functions as a firefighting apparatus.
• The primary purposes of a fire engine include transporting firefighters and water to an
incident as well as carrying equipment for firefighting operations
• These vehicles are designed differently according to the cases in which they will be used.
Detector Systems
• Heat detector - or heat alarm - is a device that's used to detect any substantial increase
in temperature which may indicate a fire is about to break out
• A fire detector that detects either abnormally high temperature or rate-of-temperature
rise, or both.
• A device suitable for connection to a circuit that has a sensor that responds to a physical
stimulus such as gas, heat, or smoke.
How do heat detectors work?!
1. Heat detectors respond primarily to the convected thermal energy of a fire.
2. They operate either when the detecting element reaches a predetermined fixed
temperature or when a specified rate of temperature change occurs.
Purpose
1. Detect fire in the areas.
2. Notify people to take evasive action to escape the dangers of a hostile fire.
3. Summon organized assistance to initiate or assist in fire control activities.
4. Initiate automatic fire control & suppression systems & to sound alarm
Heat detectors ; fixed temp type heat detector, rate-of-rise type heat detector , A rate compensation
detector, Combination fixed-temperature/rate-of-rise detectors , A thermoelectric effect detector
1. Smoke detectors; Photoelectric, Ionization
2. Flame detectors; Ultraviolet light (UV), Infrared (IR)
3. Fire-gas detectors
there are a wide array of different types, but we can divide them into groups including:
• – Heat detectors
• – Smoke detectors
• – Carbon Monoxide detectors
• – Multi-sensor detectors
• – Manual Call Points
Fire Alarm Systems
• A fire alarm system warns people when smoke, fire, carbon monoxide or other fire-
related emergencies are detected.
• Fire Alarm Systems are installed to prevent fire breakouts from elevating to uncontrollable
levels before or when the Fire Fighters arrive to the scene.
• The primary purpose of the fire alarm system is to enhance the safety of he occupants of a
building by giving an early warning so that they may escape to safety.
• At the same time they will provide automatic alerting to the fire stations to ensure that fire
fighters arrive at the premises before the fires get out of control.
• There are two types of fire alarm initiating devices:
32
 1. Manual and
2. Automatic.
• Manual initiating devices are manual pull-down stations that can only be activated by hand.
• Automatic initiating devices trigger automatically in the presence of fire.
• A fire alarm system warns people when smoke, fire, carbon monoxide or other fire-related
emergencies are detected. These alarms may be activated automatically from
1. Heat detectors ; fixed temp type heat detector, rate-of-rise type heat detector
2. Smoke detectors; Photoelectric, Ionization
3. Flame detectors; Ultraviolet light (UV), Infrared (IR)
4. Fire-gas detectors
Fire Hydrant System
• A fire hydrant is a pipe that allows water to flow from a water main with the control of a
valve in order to put out a fire.
• Hydrant System forms the backbone of the entire fire fighting system. It comprises of heavy
duty above & underground piping with accessories
• Fire hydrant installation consists of a system of pipe work connected directly to the water
supply main to provide water to each and every hydrant outlet and is intended to provide
water for the firemen to fight a fire
• Fire Fighting Pumps & Accessories• Piping• Panels• Landing Valves• Hoses• Couplings•
Hose Reel• Branch Pipes & Nozzles• Fire Brigade Connections• Wiring & Instrumentations•
Maintenance Valves
Fire Suit / fire protection gear
• A fire proximity suit is a suit designed to protect firefighter or volcanologist from extremely
high temperatures.
• Fire suits protect firefighters from fire, heat, toxic fumes, sharp objects, slippery surfaces,
biological fluids, spilt chemicals and electricity.
• It is a kit containing various things like boots, jackets, pant , gloves, face masks, hood ,
Breathing apparatus , A whistle etc
• There are three basic types of proximity suits:-
• Approach suit—used for work in the general area of high temperatures such as steel mills.
(Ambient heat protection up to ~200 °F )
• Rescue suit;-used for rescue and fire fighting (AR-FF) & for kiln work. (Kiln suit ambient
protection upto 700 °F)
• Entry suit—used for entry into extreme heat and situations requiring protection from total
flame engulfment
Firefighter gloves
• Firefighters use their hands to remove objects for clearing their way.
• Additionally, their hands get in touch with extremely hot objects. So, there is a higher risk of
hand burning of firefighters.
• Gloves are designed to save their hands from cuts and burns. Make sure to buy wildlife
gloves that protect your wrists too and gloves should be comfortable to ensure mobility.
Fire safety first aid kit
• Safety first kit must be equipped with all the necessary things that are required to apply on a
burnt area of a person.
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 • It must contain an antibiotic ointment, non-adhesive gauze bandage, Medical tape. scissorsrs,
Non-Adhesive Gauze Pads, Examination gloves. Gauze rolls/kling rolls, Triangular
bandages, pain reliever.

Emergency and Safety Sign

Emergency and Safety Sign
• Safety signs play an essential role in a workplace to alert
employees against potential hazards, provide directions,
stop them from doing something or to let them know the
right way to do things.

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Fire Buckets
• Fire buckets are a traditional and effective way to stop a fire in its tracks.
• Designated buckets are filled with water, sand or absorbent material and then dumped on the
fire in order to smother it.
Fire Blankets
• A fire blanket is a blanket-like object.
• The fire blanket is a specially treated fiberglass fabric that is very soft and smooth and does
not irritate the skin. It uses fiberglass thread to stitch folds and fireproof ribbons. Therefore,
these processes ensure the entire fire performance.
• At the beginning of the fire, it can be used to isolate the fire from oxygen, thereby controlling
the fire.
• Light duty fire blanket:Light duty fire blanket is used to extinguish the small fires,
• Heavy duty fire blanket:Heavy duty fire blanket is used in industrial areas
• Remember, once you use a fire blanket it cannot be reused so buy another fire blanket after
using it,
Fire doors
• A fire door is a door with a fire-resistance rating used as part of a passive fire
protection system to reduce the spread of fire and smoke between separate compartments of a
structure and to enable safe egress from a building or structure or ship
• Fire doors can be made with a combination of timber, steel, gypsum, and aluminium. They
can also have windows, which are made from borosilicate or ceramic glass (both of which
offer a higher fire resistance than standard glass), and may contain an anti-shattering wire
OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LIMITS
• In general, the occupational exposure limit (OEL) represents the maximum airborne
concentration of a toxic substance to which a worker can be exposed over a period of time
without suffering any harmful consequences.
• In general, the occupational exposure limit (OEL) indicates the level of admissible exposure,
for a length of time (usually 8 hours), to a chemical or physical hazard that is not likely to
affect the health of a worker.
• TLVs are the maximum average airborne concentration of a hazardous material to which
healthy adult workers can be exposed during an 8-hour workday and 40-hour workweek—
over a working lifetime—without experiencing significant adverse health effects

1. Time-weighted Average (TWA) concentration

2. Short-term Exposure Limit (STEL) value
3. Ceiling value
• Time-weighted Average (TWA) concentration: The concentration of a contaminant
averaged over a workday (usually 8 hours long).
• the time-weighted average concentration of a hazardous substance in the air averaged over an
8-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek to which it is believed that workers may be
repeatedly exposed, day after day, for a working lifetime without adverse effects.
• The long-term exposure limit (LTEL) is the time-weighted average concentration of a
substance over an 8-h period thought not to be injurious to health.
• It's measured in a workplace by sampling a worker's breathing zone for the whole workday.
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 •
TWA should not be exceeded for up to an 8-hour workday during a 40-hour workweek.
•
The time-weighted average concentration calculation considers the variations of the
concentration in the air of a hazardous substance and the exposure time to that concentration
over an 8-hour workday.
• Short-term Exposure Limit (STEL) value:The short-term exposure limit (STEL) is the
time-weighted average concentration of a substance over a 15 min period thought not to be
injurious to health.
• The short-term exposure limit (STEL) - the maximum average concentration to which
workers can be exposed for a short period (usually 15 minutes);
• Ceiling value: A concentration of a toxic substance in air that should not be exceeded at any
time during the workday.
• ceiling value - the concentration that should not be exceeded at any time
• Exposure limit that should not be exceeded even instantaneously.
• Surface Limit (TLV-SL): the acceptable concentration of a substance on a surface that is
not likely to result in adverse health effects if a person touches that surface.
EFFECTS OF SHORT TERM EXPOSURE
EFFECTS OF SHORT TERM EXPOSURE
• Short term exposure (e.g., minutes,5. dyspnea (difficulty breathing or
hours, days) to (usually) relatively shortness of breath)
high levels of contaminant 6. cough
• Short-term exposure is called acute 7. Respiratory infection
exposure. 8. Allergic reactions
• Symptoms or illnesses occurring 9. Diarrhea
from short-term exposure are
called acute effects. 10. cyanosis (bluish or grayish color of
the skin, nails, lips, or around the
• Acute exposure may result in acute eyes)
effects which can range from
relatively mild to extreme 11. general malaise (feeling of
discomfort, illness, or uneasiness)
• Air pollution
12. tightness in the chest
1. Headache, nausea , vomiting
13. chest pains
2. Eye, nose, throat and skin
irritation, 14. Hearing loss; temporary change in
hearing (your ears may feel stuffed
3. Bronchitis, Pneumonia up) or a ringing in your ears
4. Asthma (tinnitus).

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 EFFECTS OF LONG TERM EXPOSURE
• Long term (e.g., years to system
lifetime) exposure to (usually) 9. Sensitization
relatively low levels of 10. weakness
contaminant
• Long-term exposure is called 11. fatigue
chronic exposure. 12. anorexia
• Chronic exposure may result in 13. weight loss
chronic effects 14. disturbance of
1. cancer, gastrointestinal function
2. chronic obstructive pulmonary15. Pnemonoconosis
disease,
3. neurological problems,
4. Cardiovascular diseases
5. Other organ damage; Brain,
Nerves, Liver, Kidney
6. reproductive effects
7. genetic changes
8. damage to the nervous

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EXPOSURE PREVENTION AND CONTROL

• Controlling exposures to hazards in the workplace is vital to protecting workers.

• Plan out” the exposure, by not using hazardous substances, or using them in such a way that
no one is exposed;

• If does not completely prevent exposure, then prevent or minimize emission of the
substances

• If it is not possible to prevent exposure by any other method, then give personal protective
equipment, including respiratory protective equipment (RPE), to the workers and other
persons, as needed.

Exposure Prevention and control

• The hierarchy of controls is a way of determining which actions will best control
exposures.
• The hierarchy of controls has five levels of actions to reduce or remove hazards.
• The preferred order of action based on general effectiveness is:
1. Elimination
2. Substitution
3. Engineering controls
4. Administrative controls
5. Personal protective equipment (PPE)
• Using this hierarchy can lower worker exposures and reduce risk of illness or injury.

• Elimination
• Elimination removes the hazard at the source. This could include changing the work process
to stop using a toxic chemical, heavy object, or sharp tool. It is the preferred solution to
protect workers because no exposure can occur.
• Substitution
• Substitution is using a safer alternative to the source of the hazard.
• When considering a substitute, it’s important to compare the potential new risks of the
substitute to the original risks.
• This review should consider how the substitute will combine with other agents in the
workplace.
• Effective substitutes reduce the potential for harmful effects and do not create new risks.

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 • Engineering Controls
• Engineering controls reduce or prevent hazards from coming into contact with workers.
• Engineering controls can include modifying equipment or the workspace, using protective
barriers, ventilation, and more.
• Administrative Controls
• Administrative controls establish work practices that reduce the duration, frequency, or
intensity of exposure to hazards.
• This may include:
1. work process training
2. job rotation
3. ensuring adequate rest breaks
4. limiting access to hazardous areas or machinery
5. adjusting line speeds
• PPE
• PPE is equipment worn to minimize exposure to hazards.
• PPE include gloves, safety glasses, hearing protection, hard hats, and respirators.
• When employees use PPE, employers should implement a PPE program.
• While elements of the PPE program depend on the work process and the identified PPE, the
program should address:
1. workplace hazards assessment
2. PPE selection and use
3. inspection and replacement of damaged or worn-out PPE
4. employee training
5. program monitoring for continued effectivenes
HAZARD PREVENTION AND CONTROL
Hazard Prevention;- The process of designing a job or operation so that hazards are completely
eliminated
Hazard Control;- The process of designing or finding ways to minimize the risk of a hazard that
cannot be entirely eliminated
OBJECTIVE
1. Effective controls protect workers from workplace hazards;
2. help avoid injuries, illnesses, and incidents;
3. minimize or eliminate safety and health risks; and
4. help employers provide workers with safe and healthful working conditions.

To effectively control and prevent hazards, employers should:

• Involve workers, who often have the best understanding of the conditions that create hazards
and insights into how they can be controlled.
• Identify and evaluate options for controlling hazards, using a "hierarchy of controls."
• Use a hazard control plan to guide the selection and implementation of controls, and
implement controls according to the plan.
• Develop plans with measures to protect workers during emergencies and nonroutine
activities.

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 • Evaluate the effectiveness of existing controls to determine whether they continue to provide
protection, or whether different controls may be more effective. Review new technologies for
their potential to be more protective, more reliable, or less costly.

Action item 1: Identify control options

• Before selecting any control options, it is essential to solicit workers’ input on their
feasibility and effectiveness.
Action item 2: Select controls
• Employers should select the controls that are the most feasible, effective, and permanent.
Action item 3: Develop and update a hazard control plan
• A hazard control plan describes how the selected controls will be implemented. An effective
plan will address serious hazards first. Interim controls may be necessary, but the overall goal
is to ensure effective long-term control of hazards
Action item 4: Select controls to protect workers during nonroutine operations and
emergencies
• The hazard control plan should include provisions to protect workers during nonroutine
operations and foreseeable emergencies. Depending on the workplace, or medical
emergencies. Nonroutine tasks, or tasks workers don’t normally do, should be approached
with particular caution.
Action item 5: Implement selected controls in the workplace
• Once hazard prevention and control measures have been identified, they should be
implemented according to the hazard control plan.
Action item 6: Follow up to confirm that controls are effective
• To ensure that control measures are and remain effective, employers should track progress in
implementing controls, inspect and evaluate controls once they are installed, and follow
routine preventive maintenance practices

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 UNIT-II
DEFINITION
• INCIDENT; OSHA defines an incident as "an unplanned,
undesired event that adversely affects completion of a
task." Incidents range in severity from near misses to fatal
accidents.
• ACCIDENT The National Safety Council defines an
accident as an undesired event that results in personal
injury or property damage
• Accident ; an undesirable or unfortunate happening that
occurs unintentionally and usually results in harm, injury,
damage, or loss; casualty

Unsafe Act
The unsafe act is a violation of an accepted safe procedure which could permit the occurrence of an
accident.”
Unsafe act;- any activity by workers which are not as per the prescribed safety standard of practice
.Any human action that violates a commonly accepted work procedure
1. Speed – operating a machine at a speed it is not designed to run at.
2. Working without authority – entering a confined space before it has been declared safe.
3. Adjusting moving machinery – lubricating bearings or changing the drive belts while the
machine is still running.
4. Chance taking – Running in front of a fork lift
5. PPE not worn – not wearing safety goggles when grinding.
6. Failure to warn
7. Failure to secure
8. Making safety device inoperable
9. Removing safety devices
10. Using defective equipment
11. Using equipment improperly
Unsafe conditions
NEAR MISS - Near misses describe incidents where no property was damaged and no personal
injury sustained, but where, given a slight shift in time or position, damage and/or injury easily could
have occurred.
HAZARD ;-A hazard is a source or a situation with the potential for harm in terms of human injury
or ill-health, damage to property, damage to the environment, or a combination of these
A hazard is any source of potential damage, harm or adverse health effects on something or
someone

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OCCUPATIONAL HAZARD:- Refers to those aspects of work or work environment that have
tendency of causing harm/ danger to people/ employees
ERROR; can be defined as a deviation from accuracy, correctness; a mistake, as in action
Human error refers to something having been done that was "not intended by the actor; not desired
by a set of rules or an external observer; or that led the task or system outside its acceptable limits"
OVERSIGHT;- a mistake made because of a failure to notice something:an omission or error due to
carelessness
MISTAKE;- an action or decision that is wrong or produces a result that is not correct or not
intended
Mistake' can be defined as any action, decision or judgement that produced an unwanted and
unintentional result.
Safety:
It is the state of being safe, the conditions of being protected from health and economical losses,
physical, damage accident, error, harm or other types of consequences of failure.
Safety can also be defined to be the control of recognized hazards to achieve an acceptable risk level.
Industrial safety:
It is defined as policies and protections put in place to ensure plant and factory worker protection
from hazards that could cause injury.
Occupational safety deals with all aspects of safety in a workplace. Occupational safety focuses
mainly on preventing injuries to personnel that can result from incidents associated with the job they
perform in the workplace.

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