Higher Colleges of Technology

Process Instrumentation & Control

ELE 2603

LO1: Introduction to Instrumentation

&
Process Control.

S1 2022 – v5
Objectives
 Where is this in my course map?

Introduction to process control

ELE 2603 course map
Objectives
At the end of these slides you will be able
 Identify a process, process variables and types of processes :
discrete, batch and continuous
 Identify the four basic elements of a process control loop
 Define, identify and compute, as appropriate, the control
system set point, reference input, actual value, error value,
feedback type, and controller type
 Draw a block diagram of process control loop
 Calculate the control system signal quantities in terms of
actual value and percentage of the signal range.
Process Control

 Process : Is a sequence of interdependent (chemical,

physical, electrical or mechanical) steps and linked
procedures which, at every stage, consume one or more
resources (humans, energy, machines, money) to convert
inputs (data, material, parts, etc.) into outputs. The outputs
may then serve as inputs for the next stage until a known goal
or end result is reached.
(Humans, energy, money)

Raw material End product

 Process Control
 Example: Liquid flow into a tank at some rate Qin, and out of the tank at some
rate, Qout.
 Process elements: the flow of liquid into and out of the tank, the tank, the liquid.
 In this process the liquid is flowing into a tank at some rate, Qin , and out of the tank
at some rate, Qout . The liquid in the tank has some height or level h. the level will
drop, if Qout > Qin or rise, if Qout < Qin

 What are the variables in this process?  Height of the liquid, flow etc

 What type of process is this?  This is continuous process

 What would make the water level  If the Qout is higher than Qin
increase and decrease?  the process needs to be controlled to stop
 Do we need to Control the process? overflow, or stop the tank from being empty?

 These are questions to get the

students to think and you don’t
have to answer them. Hopefully by
the end of the slides these
questions will be answered.
Process Control : Significance

 PROCESS CONTROL refers to the methods used to control

process variables when manufacturing a product. For example,
factors such as the temperature of the materials, and the pressure
under which the materials are held can significantly impact the
quality of an end product. Manufacturers control the production
process for three reasons:
 Reduce variability
 Increase efficiency
 Ensure safety
 Process Control : Significance

 Reduce Variability Process control can reduce variability in the end

product, which ensures a consistently high-quality product.
Manufacturers can also save money by reducing variability.
 Increase Efficiency
Some processes need to be maintained at a specific point to maximize
efficiency. For example, a control point might be the temperature at
which a chemical reaction takes place. Accurate control of temperature
ensures process efficiency.
 Ensure Safety
A run-away process, such as an out-of-control nuclear or chemical
reaction, may result if manufacturers do not maintain precise control of
all of the process variables. The consequences of a run-away process can
be catastrophic.
 What is Process Control?
Control + Process = Process control
 A process does not exit alone. Often control is added to a process.
e.g. controlling the temperature in a room.
In process control the basic objective is to regulate the value of some
quantity and maintain it at some desired value.
 Adding control to a process requires adding a loop to the process.
 A Control loop in a process require three tasks:
 Measurement Measurement
 Comparison
 Adjustment
Adjustment Comparison
 Process Control loop : an example
 Water level process Control example: in this process a level
transmitter (LT) measures the level in the tank and transmits a signal
to a controller (LIC).
 The controller compares the reading to a set value. If the tank level
is higher than the set point, the controller then sends a signal to the
device that can bring the tank level back to a lower level - a valve at
the bottom of the tank. The valve opens to let some liquid out of the
tank. The process then repeats.
Measurement
Comparison
Adjustment
different instruments and devices are
Qin
used in control loops (e.g., transmitters,
sensors, controllers, valves, pumps), but
the three tasks of measurement,
comparison, and adjustment are Set point Qout
always present.
Process Control – Terminology
 Process Variable A process variable is the condition of a variable
being observed in a process which can change the manufacturing
process in some way. In the example of the water tank, the
process variable is the water level.
 Common process variables include: Pressure, Flow, Level,
Temperature, Density, Ph (acidity or alkalinity), Liquid interface
Mass, Conductivity etc.

 Set-point: The set-point is a value for a process variable that is

desired to be maintained.
For example, in the water tank example the set point is shown. Then the water
level using the valve will be used to adjust the water level to the shown set
point.
Process Control – Terminology
 MeasuredVariable,
The measured variable is the condition of a process that must be kept
at the designated set-point. Sometimes the measured variable is not
the same as the process variable. For example, a manufacturer may
measure flow into and out of a storage tank to determine tank level.
In this scenario, flow is the measured variable, and the process fluid
level is the process variable.
 Manipulated Variables
The variable that is changed to keep the measured variable at
setpoint is called the manipulated variable. In the example described,
the manipulated variable would also be flow
 Process Control – Terminology
 Controller: Controller is the element that decides and
commands the actions required to reduce the error. Operations
in modern controllers are performed by microprocessor-based
computers, dedicated controllers and programmable logic
controllers (PLC) .
 The controller output (CO) is the signal from the controller
to the final control element.
 Loop: is the signal flow in a process from measurements of
variables to error detector, controller and final control element
is called a loop. Some time these are called feedback loops.
 Process Control – Terminology
 Instrument is any device used for indicating or measuring
physical quantities or conditions, performance, position,
direction, and the like.
 Sensors are devices that can detect physical variables, such
as temperature, light intensity, or motion, and have the
ability to give a measurable output that varies in relation to
the amplitude of the physical variable. e.g. temperature
sensor, flow meter etc
 Process Control – Terminology
 A final control element (FCE) is the device that changes the
value of the manipulated variable. Or the device that applies a direct
influence on the process to bring the variable to its set point. In the
example of the water tank the final control element is the valve.
 Actuators are devices that are used to control an input variable in
response to a signal from a controller. Atypical actuator will be a
flow-control valve that can control the rate of flow of a fluid in
proportion to the amplitude of an electrical signal from the
controller. Other types of actuators are magnetic relays that turn
electrical power on and off. e.g. Relay, motor, pump etc
Process Control – definition revisited

 Process control is the act of controlling a final

control element to change the manipulated

variable to maintain the process variable at a desired
Set Point.
 Example-1
In this process a liquid is flowing into a tank at some rate, Qin , and out of the
tank at some rate, Qout . The liquid in the tank has some height or level h.
Assume the sensor is a level meter, Identify the following

1. Process variable = level of liquid ! Note variables are parameters

2. Measured Variable = level of liquid while the sensor and FCE are
3. Manipulated variable = flow of liquid physical devices.
4. Sensor = Level meter sensor Qin
5. FCE = Valve

! Note once the sensor is determined the

measured variable can be found.
Once the FCE is determined the
manipulated variable can be determined Set Point
Qout
 Example-2
In this process a liquid is flowing into a tank at some rate, Qin , and out of the
tank at some rate, Qout . The liquid in the tank has some height or level h.
Assume the sensor is a pressure meter, Identify the following

Qin
Process variable = level of liquid
Measured Variable = Pressure of liquid
Manipulated variable = Liquid flow
Sensor = pressure sensor
FCE = Valve
Pressure
sensor
Set Point
Qout
 Check !
 Label the following diagram.

A = Resource A
B = Input
C = Output B C

 Which of the following is the proper sequence of controlling a

loop
A. Adjustment, Comparison and Measurement
B. Measurement, Comparison and Adjustment
C. Comparison, Adjustment and Measurement,
D. None of the above
 Check !
 Which of the following is  Which of the following is reason for
variable that is changed to keep manufacturers to control the
the measured variable at a production process.
setpoint A. Increased variability
A. Process variable
B. Increased efficiency
B. Measured variable
C. Set point variable
C. Ensure safety
D. Manipulated variable D. Increased complexity

 Which of the following is the  Which of the following is used to

device that changes the value of control a loop in a process
the manipulated variable A. Measurement
A. Final control element B. Calibration
B. First control element
C. Rectification
C. Loop control element
D. Process control element
D. Amplification
 Process Control Block Diagram
 Putting the elements together in a block diagram gives the following block
diagram. A block diagram is a graphical representation used to describe a
control system.
 The difference between the set point and measured output is the error signal.
 Error Detector: detects the difference between actual (measured) values and
the corresponding set points (desired values).
 Desired output is called the setpoint.
Manipulated
Variable
FCE
e
Set Point

Process Variable
Feedback path
 Examples: fluid Temperature process.
 A process to control the temperature of a liquid is very common. A
process fluid is fed to a tank. The temperature of the fluid is
measured and transmitted to a controller. The controller opens or
closes a valve to allow hot steam to go in or out of a heat
exchanger. The fluid in contact with the heat exchanger will change
its temperature.
 Process variable = fluid temperature
 Measured variable = Temp.
 Manipulated variable = steam flow
 Sensor = temp sensor
 final control element = steam valve
Hot steam
draw a block diagram of a process control and label
the blocks and signals. Identify the following
Set-point, measured value, process variable
manipulated variable, feedback loop, controller.
 Examples: Flow process
 Flow process uses a flow sensor, a
transmitter, a controller, a valve or
pump are used in flow control loops
 flow control are fast loops therefore,
flow control equipment have fast
response times.
 A process fluid is pumped using a
pump. The flow of the fluid is
measured and the amount of flow is
adjusted using a valve.
Process variable Fluid flow
Measured variable Fluid flow
Manipulated variable Fluid flow
draw a block diagram of a process control and label
Sensor Flow
the blocks and signals. Identify the following
Set-point, measured value, process variable final control element valve
manipulated variable, feedback loop, controller.
 Examples: liquid level

 The liquid level in a tank is a common

process variable. The flow of water to
a tank is controlled by a valve. The
level of the water can be measured by a
range of sensors : radar, ultrasonic,
float gauge, and pressure
measurement.
 The final control element is usually a
valve on the input and/or outflow
connections to the tank.
Process variable Liquid level
Measured variable pressure
draw a block diagram of a process control and label
the blocks and signals. Identify the following Manipulated variable Liquid flow
Set-point, measured value, process variable Sensor Pressure
manipulated variable, feedback loop, controller.
final control element valve
 Examples : Temperature process
 A control process loop in
which a flow transmitter
opens or closes a hot steam
valve based on how much
cold fluid passes through the
flow sensor. Objective is to
keep the fluids at some
controlled setpoint temp.

Process variable
Measured variable
Manipulated variable draw a block diagram of a process control and label
the blocks and signals. Identify the following
Sensor Set-point, measured value, process variable
final control element manipulated variable, feedback loop, controller.
 Examples : Temperature process
 A more advanced version for
the control process loop in
the previous example. In
which a flow transmitter
opens or closes a hot steam
valve based on how much
cold fluid passes through the
flow sensor and measuring
the actual fluid temp. Two
measured variables.
Process variable fluid temperature
Measured variable Temp & Flow
Manipulated variable Steam flow draw a block diagram of a process control and label
the blocks and signals. Identify the following
Sensor Temp & flow Set-point, measured value, process variable
final control element Steam valve manipulated variable, feedback loop, controller.
Types of processes - Discrete
Discrete process is concerned with controlling a sequence
of events rather than regulation of variables. A sequence of
events are timed to be started and stopped on a specified
schedule i.e. event based. Discrete control systems are
often implemented using Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLCs).
Types of processes
 Batch – Some applications require that specific quantities of raw
materials be combined in specific ways for particular durations to
produce an intermediate or end result.
 Batch processes is used in everyday life. For instance, when we bake a cake,
we follow a recipe that involves adding ingredients, stirring the mixture,
pouring it into baking pans, putting the pans into the oven for a specific
time at a specific temperature.
 Industrial batch processes are similar to the process of baking a
cake but scaled up to produce a larger quantity of material.
 One example is the production of glues , which normally require
the mixing of raw materials in a heated vessel for a period of time
to form a quantity of end product. Other important examples are
the production of food, beverages and medicine.
 Types of processes
 Continuous – Often, a physical
system is represented through
variables that are smooth and
uninterrupted in time.
 e.g. the control of the water
temperature in a heating jacket, for
example, is an example of continuous
process control.
 The control of the mixture in a vessel
is an example of a continuous process.
 Some important continuous processes
are the production of fuels, chemicals
and plastics

Continuous process
Types of Control Systems: Open Loop
 An Open-loop system, also referred to as non-feedback system,
is a type of continuous control system in which the output has no
influence on the control action of the input signal. In an open-loop
control system the output is neither measured nor “fed back” for
comparison with the input. Therefore, an open-loop system is
expected to faithfully follow its input command or set point
regardless of the final result.
 An open-loop controller is often used in simple processes because
of its simplicity and low cost, especially in systems where feedback
is not critical.
 Types of Control Systems: Open Loop
 A typical example would be a conventional washing machine, for which the
length of machine wash time is entirely dependent on the judgment and
estimation of the human operator.
 Is an irrigation sprinkler system, an example of an open-loop system? Can you
name others?

Open-loop (without
feedback) control of the
speed of a rotating disk
Types of Control Systems: close-loop
 One way to accurately control a process is by monitoring its
output and “feeding” some of it back to compare the actual output
with the desired output so as to reduce the error and if disturbed,
bring the output of the system back to the original or desired
response. The measure of the output is called the “feedback signal”
and the type of control system which uses feedback signals to
control itself is called a close-loop System.
 Types of Control Systems: close-loop

Main characteristics of closed-loop control is :

 To reduce errors by automatically adjusting the systems
input.
 To improve stability of an unstable system.
 To reduce the systems sensitivity.
 To enhance robustness against external disturbances to the
process.
Types of Control Systems: close-loop

Closed-loop control of the speed of a rotating disk.

feedback
 Process Control Systems

 Manual–Human Aided Control systems

utilize human to maintain the desired output
e.g. Changing the car directions by observing
the road and turning the steering wheel.

 Automatic Control systems utilize machines,

electronics and computers to replace the actions
of a human.
 e.g. Many automotive manufacturing is
automated by an assembly line and robots for
wielding and part placement.
Process parameters & their calculation

 Range: The range of a sensor or a measurement is the lowest

and highest values it can measure within its specification.
Instruments should be selected with a range that includes all
values a process will normally encounter, including expected
disturbances and possible failures.

 Span: The span of a sensor is the high end of the Range

minus the low end of the Range.

 e.g. an RTD (temp sensor) with a range of -200oC to +560oC

would have a span of 760oC.
Process parameters & their calculation

 Accuracy of an instrument or device is the error or the

difference between the indicated value and the actual value.
 Accuracy is determined by comparing an indicated reading to
that of a known standard.
 Standards can be calibrated devices, and may be obtained
from the National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST).
Process parameters & their calculation

 Accuracy :The resulting discrepancy is stated as a plus-or-minus

deviation from true, and is normally specified as a percentage of
reading, span, or of full-scale reading or deflection (% FSD), and
can be expressed as an absolute value.

pressure sensor has a range of 25 to 150 psi. Specify the error when
measuring 107 psi, if the accuracy of the gauge is
±1.5% of span, (b)±2% FSD, and (c) ±1.3% of reading.

a) Error =±0.015 (150 −25) psi=±1.88 psi.

b) Error =±0.02 × 150 psi=±3 psi.
c) Error =±0.013 × 107 psi=±1.39 psi
 Process parameters & their calculation

 Precision is the reproducibility with which repeated

measurements can be made under identical conditions.
 Precision may also be referred to as stability or drift.
Precision is always required for good control, even when
accuracy is not required.

Precision is the more

important characteristic of
an instrument!
Process parameters & their calculation
 Resolution – It is the smallest difference in a variable to which
the instrument will respond.
 Sensitivity the minimum input of physical parameter that will
create a detectable output change.
 Hysteresis is the difference in readings obtained when an
instrument approaches a signal from opposite directions, i.e., if an
instrument reads a midscale value going from zero it can give a
different reading from the value after making a full-scale reading.
This is due to stresses induced into the material of the instrument
by changing its shape in going from zero to full-scale deflection.
Notes