Name: Symbiosis Institute of Technology

Department of Applied Sciences

Physics Lab Manual

Academic Year 2024-25
 Vision and Mission (SIU)

Vision:

Promoting International understanding through quality education

Mission:

• To inculcate spirit of 'Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam' (the world is one family).

• To contribute towards knowledge generation and dissemination.
• To promote ethical and value-based learning.
• To foster the spirit of national development.
• To inculcate cross cultural sensitization.
• To develop global competencies amongst students.
• To nurture creativity and encourage entrepreneurship.
• To enhance employability and contribute to human resource development.
• To promote health and wellness amongst students, staff & community.
• To instill sensitivity amongst the youth towards the community and environment.
• To produce thought provoking leaders for the society.

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 Vision and Mission (SIT)

Vision:

To be a Center of Excellence for creation and dissemination of knowledge by imparting

life skills and experiential learning for a promising future in the areas of engineering
and technology.

Mission:
 To promote professional ethics and experiential learning for better employability.

 To contribute towards knowledge generation and dissemination in the field of engineering.

 To address societal problems by promoting research, innovation and entrepreneurship.

 To develop global competencies amongst students by fostering value-based education.

 To strengthen industrial, Institutional, and international collaborations for synergetic

relations.

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 List of Experiments
NOTE: Any ten from following experiments will be chosen by the faculty in the beginning of the
semester depending upon branch-specific requirements. All students of a particular branch will
complete the ten selected experiments in one semester. All the lab sessions are of two hours’ duration.

S.N. Experiments Code Pages

1 To calculate the dispersive power of a prism. O 6–8

2 To determine the first ionization potential of Ar gas via Franck-Hertz expt. Q 9 – 13
3 To verify the inverse square law of ‘Intensity vs Distance’ using a photocell. Q 14 – 16
4 To determine the value of Planck's constant ‘h’ by a photocell. Q 17 – 19
5 To study the characteristic curves of semiconducting diodes (Si, Ge, LED, S 20 – 21
Zener).
6 To study the characteristics of a solar cell and calculate the fill factor S 22 – 23
7 To determine the angular divergence of a laser source. O 24 – 25
8 To determine the wavelength of the Laser using a diffraction grating. O 26 – 28
9 To measure the magnetic field between Helmholtz coils. E 29 – 32
10 To determine the band gap of a semiconductor and identify the type of S 33 – 34
semiconductor.
11 Syllabus - 35 – 36
12 Course Outcome Statements and CO-PO Articulation Matrix - 37
13 Daily Evaluation 38

Codes: O: Optics, E: Electricity and Magnetism, Q: Quantum, s: Semi-conductors, W: Waves

and Oscillations.

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 (This page is left

blank intentionally )

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 Experiment No. 1

DISPERSIVE POWER OF MATERIAL OF THE PRISM

Aim: To determine the dispersive power of the material of the prism.

Apparatus: Spectrometer, Mercury source, prism, table lamp, spirit level.
Diagram:

Collimator

Base of prism

Prism

Telescope

Direct Position

Figure 1. Placement of prism on the spectrometer.

Formula:

v  r
=
 v  r 
  1
 2 

where, = dispersive power

 v = refractive index for violet color

 r = refractive index for red color

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 Procedure
Preliminary adjustment of the spectrometer

1. Adjust the eye-piece to see the clear image of the straight wire.
2. The telescope is directed towards a distant object and the distance between the eyepiece and the
objective lens is adjusted to get a clear image. The telescope is now set for parallel rays.
3. A spirit level is placed on the prism table and the screws at the base are adjusted till it is perfectly
horizontal.
4. The telescope is brought in line with the collimator and the focus knob on the collimator is adjusted if
required. The direct reading R0 is noted.
5. Fix the turn table and mount the prism on the turn table to observe the spectrum.
6. Turn the telescope to observe the red line.
7. Now rotate the table so that, the image moves towards the axis of the collimator .i.e. angle of deviation
decreases.
8. The rotation is continued till the image stops and begins to retrace its path. This gives the position of
the minimum deviation.
9. The vertical cross wire is made to coincide with the image and note the reading Ro.
10. Repeat the above procedure to obtain the angle of minimum deviation for the violet line and note the
corresponding reading R v.
11. The difference between the direct reading and refracted reading for the colors gives the angle of
minimum deviation (d) for corresponding spectral lines.
12. Use the given formula to calculate the dispersive power of the prism.

Observation:

Valueof 1MSD (in degree)

Least Count  L.C. = = ………………….
No.of divisionson V.S.

L.C. = ------degree = --------minute

Table I: Observation and calculation table for determining the angle of minimum deviation

Direct reading Line Spectrometer reading Angle of min. deviation

δ= │R-R0│degree

MSR VSD TR MSR VSD TR

degree degree degree Degree

Red

Violet

MSR = Main Scale Reading

VSD= Coinciding Vernier Scale Division

TR = Total Reading = MSR + (VSD  L. C.)

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 Calculations:

 A  r 
sin  
1.  r   2  , (where A is the angle of the prism, A = 60)
A
sin
2

 A  v 
sin  
2.  v   2 
A
sin
2
3. Dispersive power of the prism is calculated by following formula

v  r
=
 v  r 
 2  1
 

Results:
Dispersive power of the material of the given prism is ...............................

Questions
Q 1. Describe the phenomenon of dispersion of light.
Q 2. What is meant by the angle of minimum deviation?
Q 3. Define the refractive index of a material.
Q 4. How does the refractive index change with change in wavelength of light?

8
 Experiment No. 2

FRANCK HERTZ EXPERIMENT

Aim: To experimentally demonstrate the concept of quantization of energy levels of atom (Bohr’s
model) using Franck-Hertz experiment and determine first excitation potential of Argon gas.

Apparatus: Tetrode tube filled with experimental Argon gas, filament, power supply three variable
voltage sources, nanoammeter,

All above apparatus is in the following (or similar) Franck Hertz Box.

Figure 1. Digital image of the Franck-Hertz experiment set-up.

Theory:

There was an experiment conducted by James Franck and Gustav Hertz in 1914, to demonstrate the
existence of excited states in mercury atoms. It confirms the prediction of Bohr model of quantum
theory that electrons occupy only discrete, quantized energy states. For this great invention they have
been awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in the year 1925.

From the early spectroscopic work, it is clear that atoms emit radiation at discrete frequencies. From
Bohr’s model, the frequency of the radiation  is related to the change of energy levels through ∆ =
ℎ . It is then to be expected that transfer of energy to atomic electrons by any mechanism should
always be in discrete amounts. One such mechanism of energy transfer is through inelastic scattering
of low- energy electrons.

Franck and Hertz in 1914 set out to verify these considerations.

(a) It is possible to excite atoms by low energy electron bombardment.
(b) The energy transferred from electrons to the atoms always had discrete values.

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 (c) The values so obtained for the energy levels were in agreement with spectroscopic results.
In this experiment excitation of Ar atoms is studied by inelastic collision with electrons. The
electrons emitted from the indirectly heated cathode of a tetrode filled with argon vapors are
accelerated. The excited atoms emit visible light that can be viewed directly. The excitation energy of
argon is determined from the distance between the equidistant maxima of the electron current in
variable opposing electric field. Figure 1 shows the Franck Hertz box

Experimental Set-up:

The experimental set up involves a tube containing low

pressure experimental gas fitted with four
electrodes: an electron-emitting cathode (K), a mesh grid
(G1) for minimizing space charge effects a mesh grid (G2)
for acceleration, and an anode (A). The anode was held at a
slightly negative electrical potential relative to the grid G2
(although positive compared to the cathode), so that
electrons had to have at least a corresponding amount of
kinetic energy to reach it after passing the grid and thereby
making the dips in the plate current more prominent.
Instruments were fitted to measure the current passing
Figure 2. Circuit diagram of between the electrodes, and to adjust the potential difference
Franck-Hertz experiment (voltage) between the cathode (negative electrode) and the
accelerating grids Figure 2.

Operating Principle:

The Franck-Hertz tube in this instrument is a tetrode filled with the argon vapour. Figure.1 shows the
basic scheme of experiment.

The electrons emitted by filament can be accelerated by the potential VG2K between the cathode
and the grid G2. The grid G1 helps in minimizing space charge effects. The grids are wire mesh and
allow the electrons to pass through. The plate A is maintained at a potential slightly negative with
respect to the grid G2. This helps in making the dips in the plate current more prominent. In this
experiment, the electron current is measured as a function of the voltage VG2K. As Voltage increases,
the electron energy goes up and so the electron can overcome the retarding potential VG2A to reach the
plate A. This gives rise to a current in the ammeter, which initially increases. As the voltage further
increases, the electron energy reaches the threshold value to excite the atom in its first allowed excited
state. In doing so, the electrons lose energy and therefore the number of electrons reaching the plate
decreases. This decrease is proportional to the number of inelastic collisions that have occurred. When
the VG2K is increased further and reaches a value twice that of the first excitation potential, it is possible
for an electron to excite an atom halfway between the grids, lose all its energy, and then gain a new

10
 enough energy to excite another atoms resulting in a second dip in the current. The advantage of
this type of configuration of the potential is that the current dips are much more pronounced, and
it is easy to obtain six-fold or even larger multiplicity in the excitation of the first level i.e. one can get
6 peaks (dips) or more.

Figure 3. Representative Franck-Hertz curve showing plate current versus accelerating voltage
characteristics.
Formula Used:

If Vn is the potential corresponding to n th peak and V1 is the potential corresponding to 1 st peak, then

The 1st excitation potential = … (1)

Where, (n-1) is number of dips between 1st and nth peaks. Figure 3 shows plate current Vs VG2K, for
reference.
Experiment consists of the following:

 Argon filled tetrode

 Filament Power Supply: 2.6 – 3.3 V continuously variable
 Power Supply for VG1K: 1.3 – 5 V continuously variable
 Power Supply for VG2A: 1.3 – 15 V continuously variable
 Power Supply for VG2K: 0 – 95 V continuously variable

Multirange Analogue Voltmeter Range: VG1K: 0-5 V, VG2A: 0-15 V & VG2K: 0-100 V
Multirange Digital Ammeter Range: 0 – 100 V, 0 – 10 µA & 0 – 1 µA
Range Multiplier: 10 -6, 10-7, 10-8 & 10 -9
The instrument can lead to a plot of the amplitude spectrum curve by means of point by point
measurement.

Procedure

1. Before the power is switched ‘ON’ make sure all the control knobs are at their minimum
position and Current Multiplier knob at 10-7 or 10-8 or 10 -9 (whichever suitable) position.
2. Switch ‘ON’ the power.
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 3. Turn the manual- Auto Switch to manual and check that the Scanning Voltage Knob is at its
minimum position.
4. Turn Voltage Display Selector to VG1K and adjust the VG1K knob until voltmeter reads 1.5V.
5. Turn Voltage display selector to VG2A and adjust the VG2A knob until the voltmeter reads 7.5V.

When you have finished step 1-5, you are ready to do the experiment.

Filament Voltage : 2.6 V (minimum position)

VG1K : 1.5 V
VG2A : 7.5 V
VG2K : 1 – 95 V (Variable)
Current Multiplier : 10-7 or 10-8

6. Rotate VG2K knob and observe the variation of plate current Ip with the increase of VG2K
voltage. The current reading would show maxima and minima periodically. The magnitude of
maxima could be adjusted suitably by adjusting the filament voltage and the value of Current
Multiplier. Now take the systematic readings, VG2K Vs Plate current (Ip). For better resolution,
the reading may be taken at an interval of 1 V (1/2 division).

7. Plot the graph with output current Ip on Y-axis and accelerating voltage VG2K at X-axis.

Table I: Observation table to record the variation of G2K voltage versus plate current.

S. N. Acceleration Potential VG2K (Volts) Plate Current Ip (nano Amperes)

1
2
3
.
.

1. At low potential differences up to 12 volts when the tube contained argon vapour the current
through the tube increased steadily with increasing potential difference. The higher voltage
increased the electric field in the tube and electrons were drawn more forcefully towards and
through the accelerating grid.

2. At 12 volts the current drops sharply, almost back to zero.

3. The current increases steadily once again if the voltage is increased further, until 24 volts is
reached (exactly 12+12 volts).
4. At 24 volts a similar sharp drop is observed.

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 Calculation: Calculate the 1st excitation potential using equation (1). Plot the graph between
output current on Y-axis and accelerating voltage VG2K at X-axis. This shows series of dips in
current at approximately 12 volt (say) increments. A graph similar to given in Figure 2.

Result:

The First Excitation potential is for argon gas is estimated to be ……………….

Precautions

1. During the experiment (manual), when the voltage VG2K is over 60 V, please pay attention to
the output current indicator, if the ammeter reading increase suddenly, decrease the voltage at
once to avoid the damage of the tube.
2. If you want to change the value of VG1K, VG2A and Filament Voltage during experiment, please
first adjust the value of VG2K to ‘Zero’.
3. Whenever the filament voltage is changed, please allow 2-3 minutes for its stabilization.
4. When the Franck-Hertz Tube is already in the socket, please make sure the following before
the power is switched ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’, to avoid damage to the tube.
5. Manual - Auto switch is on Manual and Scanning and Filament Voltage knob at its minimum
position (rotate it anticlockwise) and current multiplier knob at 10-7.

Questions
Q 1. Why the I-V curve has a fluctuating (up-down wavy) behavior?
Q 2. The dip potentials in the I-V curve have an increasing trend. Why?
Q 3. If the argon gas is replaced by some other gas, what changes one can expect?

13
 Experiment No. 3

VERIFYING INVERSE SQARE LAW OF ‘INTENSITY VS DISTANCE’ USING A

PHOTOCELL

Aim: To verify the inverse square law of light with the help of Selenium Photocell

Apparatus: Selenium Photocell, electric lamp (bulb), multimeters.

Theory:

A device used to convert light energy into electrical energy is called Photo Electric Cell. Photo
Electric Cell is based on the phenomenon of Photo Electric Effect.

Photo-Conductive Cell

Photo-Conductive cell is also based on the principle of inner Photo-Electric Effect. It consists of a thin
film of semi-conductor like selenium or thallous sulphide place below a thin film of semi-transparent
metal. This combination is placed over the block of iron. The iron base and the transparent metal film
is connected through battery and resistance. When light falls on the cell, its resistance decreases and
hence the current starts flowing in the external circuit.

If ‘I’ be the luminous intensity of an electric lamp and ‘E’ be the luminance at a point distance “d”
from it, then according to the inverse square law;

E = I/d2

If light from the lamp be incident on the photovoltaic cell placed at a distance ‘d’ from it and if
q be the corresponding deflection shown by the micrometer then,

∝ → = , → =

The deflection of micrometer can be measure in multimeter current ‘i’ in (mA)

Figure 1. Experimental set-up for the photocell experiment.

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Procedure

1. The experiment can be performed in the laboratory but it is always good to perform it in a dark
room where stray light falling on the photocell can be avoided.
2. In the dark room mount the various parts of the apparatus on optical bench provided with a ½
meter scale.
3. Make the other connections as shown in the given figure.
4. Light up the lamp and adjust it at a suitable distance from the photocell so that the multimeter
records a reasonable change.
5. Make an observation of distance between the photocell and the lamp and corresponding
current. Recommended values of ‘d’: 20 to 50 cm.
6. Now, change the distance of the lamp from the photocell by 1 cm distance and record the
corresponding current.
7. Take a series of observations by repeating step 6 for about 20-25 readings.

Table I: Observation and calculation table for verifying the inverse square law of a photocell.
S. N. d (cm) I (mA) 1/d (m-1) 1/d2 (m-2)
1
2
3
.
.
.
.

Graph

Plot a graph between 1/d and i, taking 1/d on x-axis and i on y-axis.

Plot a graph between 1/d 2 and i, taking 1/d2 on x-axis and i on y-axis.

15
Precautions

1. Stray light should be avoided.

2. The effect of the reflected light from the bench surface should be minimized.
3. Very sensitive micro-ammeter should be used.
4. While moving the distance, the angle between the lamp and the photocell should remain
constant.

Questions
Q 1. Differentiate between a photocell and a solar cell.
Q 2. What is meant by dark current?
Q 3. What is the typical magnitude of the current that flows through a photocell?

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 Experiment No. 4

PLANCK'S CONSTANT APPARATUS

Aim: To determine the value of Planck's constant ‘h’ by a photo cell.

Apparatus: Photo emissive cell mounted in a Black Iron box provided with a wide slit and filter
holding stand, D.C. Power Supply with two digital meters (0-200µA and 0-2V), Three set of filters
and variable light source etc.

Formula:
( )
=
( )

where,

h = Planck’s constant
e = Electronic charge
V2 = Stopping potential$ corresponding to wave length 2
V1 = Stopping potential$ corresponding to wave length 1
c = Speed of light.
$
Minimum negative potential applied to anode to reduce the photo electric current to zero.

Diagram:

Figure 1. Experimental set-up for determining Planck’s constant

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 Procedure:

1. Switch on the unit. Now set the digital micro-ammeter reading to zero with the help of
potentiometer marked with zero adjust.
2. The circuit connections are made as shown in diagram (Fig-1). Be careful about the polarity
shown in diagram.
3. A light source is arranged. The light is allowed to fall on the tube. The distance between tube
and light source is adjusted such that there is a deflection of about 50µA-80 μA in digital micro
ammeter.
4. The potential is applied now to make the current zero in the circuit. Now a suitable filter (say
green) of known wave length is placed in the path of light (in the slit provided) say it is with
wave length λ2.
5. A reading is observed in the digital micro ammeter. This deflection corresponds to the zero
anode potential.
6. A small negative voltage is applied on the anode. This voltage is recorded with the help of
digital voltmeter provided (2.0 volts range).
7. The negative anode potential is gradually increased in steps and each time corresponding
reading is noted till the micro-ammeter reading reduces to zero and this is stopping potential
V2, corresponding to filter with wave length λ2. If changing the voltage knob does not change
the current, rotate the voltage knob slightly in the reverse direction and then attempt again to
rotate it till zero current is observed on the digital meter.
8. The experiment is repeated after replacing the green filter with orange and blue filters. Say with
wave length λ1 and λ2, respectively and stopping potential V1 and V3 are noted.
9. By using above values Planck's Constant 'h' is calculated by the formula given. Standard values
of e, c and wave length of standard filters are given below in calculation part.

Table I: Observation and calculation table for determining the value of Planck’s constant.

Sr. Filter Current Voltage Planck’s

No. Colour (I) µA (V) constant (h)

1. Without filter

2. Orange

3. Green

4. Blue

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 Calculation
( )
=
( )

Use
e = 1.6 × 10 -19 C

c = 3 × 10 8 m/s

Wave length of orange filter λ1 = 6125 × 10-10 ± 2% meter.

Wave length of green filter λ2 = 5645 × 10 -10 ± 2% meter.

Wavelength of blue filter λ3 = 5265 × 10-10 ± 2% meter.

Result: The value of Planck's constant ‘h’ by a photo cell is …….

Questions
Q 1. Name the phenomenon on which the photocell works.
Q 2. What happens when one places a colored filter over the photocell window?
Q 3. What is meant by stopping potential?

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 Experiment No. 5

CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF PN JUNCTION DIODES (SILICON,

GERMANIUM, ZENER AND LED)

Aim: To study forward characteristics of silicon, germanium, Zener and LED diodes

Apparatus: Circuit board, 24 V variable power supply, milliammeter (0-50 mA)

Circuit Diagram:

2k Ω

390Ω
m
24 V

Figure 1. Circuit diagram to connect the diodes in forward bias.

Theory:

Diode is a device that passes current more easily in one direction than the other. When a P-type semiconductor
chip is joined with N-type semiconductor chip then a P-N junction is formed.

1. Germanium and Silicon Diode

Forward Bias
When the positive terminal of external battery is connected to P-type and negative terminal to N-type,
then P-N junction is said to be forward biased. The current flows easily as the battery potential
overcomes the barrier potential. The depletion layer narrows and the diode offers a small resistance.
The current obtained varies with applied voltage. On plotting voltage and current, the forward
characteristic curves of the diode are obtained.
2. LED (Light Emitting Diode)
When a P-N junction diode is forward biased, free electrons cross the junction to combine with holes.
If these electrons fall from higher energy levels to lower energy levels, then they radiate light energy.
LEDs operating in visible region are used in Burglar’s alarm.
3. Zener
When junction diode is forward biased, it acts like closed switches and forward current increases with
increase in applied voltage. When the diode is reverse biased, a small reverse current flow; it remains
always constant until the Zener breakdown voltage is reached. There is a sharp increase in current; over
the breakdown region the voltage is almost constant.

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 Procedure

Forward Biased

1. Connect the given-diode in forward bias with P side connected to the positive terminal of external DC
supply and N side to the negative terminal.
2. Connect ammeter in series and voltmeter in parallel.
3. Turn the potentiometer knob and change the voltage in the circuit. Note the voltmeter readings and
corresponding changes in the current in milliammeter.
4. Tabulate the voltmeter and milliammeter readings for all the diodes.
5. Plot the forward characteristic curves for all the diodes taking V on x axis and I on y axis.

Observation Table: Note: Study the entire voltage range available

Sr. No. Si Ge Zener LED

1 V (V) I (mA) V (V) I (mA) V (V) I (mA) V (V) I (mA)
2
3
.
.
.
.
20

Precautions:

1. Connection must be made carefully.

2. Change the values of voltage in small increments.

Conclusion:

Forward characteristic curves of all the diodes are plotted.

Questions
Q 1. How will you connect a given diode in forward biasing configuration?
Q 2. Is the I-V curve of diodes linear? Yes/No? Give reasons for your answer.
Q 3. What is knee potential?
Q 4. Compare the values of knee potentials of Si and Ge diodes from the I-V curves.

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 Experiment No. 6

SOLAR CELL CHARACTERISTICS

Aim: To study the characteristics of solar cell and calculate the fill factor.

Apparatus: Board mounted with solar cell, bulb, DC power supply, digital multimeter, ammeter (0-50mA.)

Formula:

Workable wattage Vw I w
1. Fill Factor, F = 
Ideal wattage Voc Isc

Where, V = Workable voltage (volt), I = Workable current (mA)

Voc= Open circuit voltage (volt), Isc =short circuit current (mA)

Circuit diagram:
mA

- V

Figure 1. Circuit diagram for solar cell I-V characteristics

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 1. Ensure that the solar cell panel is placed appropriately near
the light source and generates deflections for the given range of load resistances. The distance between
the cell and the lamp source should not be changed thereafter throughout the experiment.
2. Switch on the apparatus with the lamp casting light on the cell.
3. Use multimeters as voltmeter and ammeter for measuring voltage and current, respectively.
4. Measure Isc for 0 load (RL= 0).
5. Vary RL and note corresponding values of voltage and current.
6. Measure Voc (Voltage when RL is maximum).
7. Plot I-V curve.

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 Table 1: Observation and calculation table for solar cell experiment.

S. No. Voltage across solar cell Current in the circuit Power (P) = V × I
(V, units) (I, units) (units)
1
2
.

Calculation:

1. Plot I-V characteristics for solar cell.

2. Plot the P-V curve on the same graph, keeping V-axis (voltage axis on x-axis) the same.
3. Identify the maximum power from the P-V curve, and drop a line from maximum power to the
voltage axis (parallel to the current axis). This line meets the I-V curve at the point (VW, IW).
4. Calculate the fill factor of the solar cell using the formula.

Figure 2. Representative plot of I-V and P-V curve.

Result:

Fill factor of given solar cell is found to be __________.

Questions
Q 1. Describe briefly the quantities IW and VW?
Q 2. Describe briefly the quantities ISC and VOC?
Q 3. What does an ideal solar cell I-V curve look like?
Q 4. Describe the physical significance of fill factor of a solar cell.

23
 Experiment No. 7

DETERMINATION OF THE ANGULAR DIVERGENCE OF THE LASER BEAM

Aim: To determine the angular divergence of the laser beam.

Apparatus: 2 mW He Ne Laser, Optical bench/table and a graph sheet as a Screen.

Formula: Half of the Angular divergence, = radians

Where, R1 is the spot radius at position-1 in cm.

R2 is the spot radius at position-2 in cm.

D is the distance of the screen in cm measured from the laser position.

THEORY:

When a laser beam is allowed to fall on a screen, a circular bright spot is seen on the screen. If screen is moved
near or far from the source, the size of the spot decreases or increases respectively.

Note that the beam will have an initial beam diameter and that diameter will increase over distance. This increase
is known as beam divergence. The approximate beam divergence in radians can be obtained.

The light emitted by a laser is confined to a narrow cone. But, when the beam propagates outward, it slowly
diverges or fans out. For an electromagnetic beam, beam divergence is the angular measure of the increase in
the radius or diameter with distance from the optical aperture as the beam emerges.

The divergence of a laser beam can be calculated if the beam diameter ω 1 (2R1) and ω2 (2R2) at two separate
distances are known. Let D1 and D2 be the distances along the laser axis, from the end of the laser to position
“1” and “2”.

PROCEDURE:

1. Laser tube is mounted on a tube holder.

2. A screen is placed at about 50 cm from the laser.
3. The laser is switched on. It forms a red spot on the screen.
4. The diameter of the spot 2R1 on the screen is measured.
5. The screen is moved around 100 cm away. The diameter of the spot 2R 2 is measured which is the
second position.
6. The distance D = (D2-D1) is measured between the two positions of the screen.
7. D should not be less than 100 cm. It should be preferably around 350 cm.
8. The angular divergence θ o, is calculated from the formula given above.
9. Angular divergence is calculated for different screen position using the above mentioned procedure and
mean angular divergence is calculated.
10. Now plot the beam radius and the corresponding position on a graph. The slope of this graph gives the
divergence.
11. Compare the two values obtained.

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 DIAGRAM 1:

D1
LASER
2R1 2R2 2Rk
Dk

Figure 1. Schematic of the experimental set-up to observe the angular divergence of a laser beam.

Table I: Observation and calculation table to determine angular divergence of laser beam.
Sr. No Position (Dk) Rk (cm) − Mean θo (rad)
(n) (cm) =
−
1 450
2 550
3 650
4 750
5 850
6 950

Calculation:

Graphical Analysis: Plot a graph between position (D) on x-axis and radius (R) on y-axis and find the slope.
Compare the calculated values of  from above two methods.
∆
Error analysis: =∆ ; ℎ
% =% ∆ +% ∆
Hint: For determining the percentage error in ‘R’ or ‘D’, determine the least count of the scales used to measure
these two physical quantities.

RESULT: The angular divergence of the He-Ne laser beam is found to be _______±_____rad.

Questions
Q 1. What is the power of the laser used?
Q 2. Discuss briefly the divergence of laser beam as compared to incandescent lamp at a fixed distance from the lamp
source?
Q 3. For a given laser spot radius, estimate the intensity (I) of the laser beam. (Hint: I = P/A, where P and A are the
power and cross-sectional area of the laser beam.

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 Experiment No. 8
WAVELENGTH OF LASER USING DIFFRACTION GRATING

Aim: To determine the wavelength of a given laser source using diffraction grating.

Apparatus: Diffraction Grating, laser source, screen, scale and stand.

Formula-Diffraction condition for maxima is, n  d Sin

Where, d = grating constant (m)

θ= Angle of diffraction (degree) n = order of Spectrum

λ = wavelength of laser source (m)

Grating Constant:

The distance between two adjacent slits of a diffraction grating is known as grating constant.
Its value is obtained by dividing the length of grating by the total number of lines ruled on the grating or if
number of lines per unit length is given then it will be reverse of that in that unit.

d=L / N (m)
L=length of the grating (m)

N=number of lines ruled on the grating

Observation:

No. of lines per inch on grating is (N) =15000, 1 inch = 2.54 x 10-2 m

2.54 x 102
d= m
15000
Theory:

A diffraction grating consists of a large number of parallel slits of equal width separated from one another by
equal opaque spacing. When monochromatic beam of light falls on this grating it splits it in to different beams.
These beams superimpose in the medium resulting a diffraction patter on the screen placed in front of grating.
By measuring the position of maxima using above relation one can determine the wavelength of the light used.

Procedure:

1. Mount the grating on the grating holder and set it parallel to the screen.
2. The grating should be perfectly vertical and set for normal incidence.
3. Measure distance Ym of nth order spot on the screen.
4. Measure distance between the grating and the screen; denote it as (D).
5. Repeat the procedure for another value of distance (D) between the grating and the screen.

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 Diagram:

=1

Laser source
Diffraction
Grating =2

Screen

Figure 1. Schematic of the experimental set-up to determine the wavelength of the given laser.

Table I: Observation and calculation table to determine the wavelength of given laser.

Sr. Order of D Distance between points of Y=Y‫׳‬/2 Y Wavelength

sin  
No. Spectrum cm same order on either side of (cm) 1/ 2 λ (nm)*
n central maxima. Y‫( ׳‬cm) D 2
Y 2 

1 1
2 2
3 1
4 2
5 1
6 2
Note that:

1 = 10 10 =1

Error Analysis: Estimate the error in the wavelength of the given laser.

For red wavelength, estimate the percentage error in the observed wavelength. Assume the
standard wavelength for red color to be 632 nm ( ).

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 Absolute error in wavelength of laser wavelength ( ):

Δλ = λ −λ .

where, λ . is the wavelength calculated in Table I above. The percentage error is

estimated to be ×100.

Result: Wavelength of the given laser source is __________ ± _____ nm.

Questions
Q 1. What is a diffraction grating? Describe briefly.
Q 2. Can the laser source be replaced by a monochromatic source of light? Yes/ No? Give reasons.
Q 3. If grating is moved towards the screen, how does the angle of diffraction change?
Q 4. Why is the central laser spot most intense?

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 Experiment No. 9

HELMHOLTZ COIL

Aim: To measure the magnetic field between Helmholtz coils

Apparatus: A pair of Helmholtz coil, dc power supply, ammeter, digital gauss meter.

Theory: According to the Biot-Savart’s law a current carrying conductor produces a magnetic flux density
around it. Figure 1 below shows the infinitesimal magnetic flux density dB produced by a current carrying
conductor. Magnetic flux density at a point due to a current carrying loop is shown in figure 2.

Figure 1. Magnetic flux density due to current carrying conductor.

Figure 2. Magnetic flux density due to current carrying loop at any point lying on the axis of the loop.

For any point lying on the axis of the circular loop or current carrying coil is given by

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 = ⋅ ∕
( + )

Here, n: no. of turns in the coil, a: radius of coil, r: distance from the center of the coil to point P, I: current
flowing in the coil, μ0: permeability of free space = 4π×10 -7 N/A2. The units of ‘B’ are in Tesla or Wb/m2.

The value of the magnetic intensity is maximum at the center ‘O’ of the coil and is given by

= ⋅

As the point ‘P’ moves, away from ‘O’ towards the right or left, the intensity of the magnetic field decreases.
Figure 3 shows the variation of the intensity of the magnetic field B as the point moves from left of ‘O’ to right
of ‘O’ through ‘O’. The curve is first concave towards ‘O’ but the curvature becomes less and less, quickly
changes sign at points P and Q and afterwards becomes convex towards O.

P Q

O
Distance from the center of the
Figure 3. Variation of magnetic field away from center of the circular loop.

If two such identical coils are placed coaxially, then depending on the relative sense of current flow in them,
the two fields add or subtract (vector sum of two fields) to give the resultant magnetic field at any point on
the axis (principle of superposition).

Helmholtz coils is an arrangement of a pair of identical coils (same no. of turns, radius) placed coaxially and
separated by a distance equal to the radius of either coil. Such a pair produces an almost uniform magnetic
field between the coils if the current through them is same and in the same sense such that two fields add as
shown in Figure 4. The resultant magnetic field at an axial point ‘S’ at a distance ( ) from coil 1 is given by

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 Figure 4. Magnetic field due to Helmholtz coil arrangement.

Procedure:

1) Connect the Sensor Cable to the sensor socket and Coil Cable to the coil socket.
2) Switch 'ON' the mains power. Turn the current adjusting knob anti-clockwise to the
minimum position; so that the current is reduced to zero.
3) Fix the position of COIL 2 at a distance of 9 cm from the COIL 1 i.e. equal to the radius of the coils.
4) Keep the sensor at the nearest location to COIL 1 and adjust the zero of Gaussmeter with 'ZERO
ADJ.' knob keeping current 0.0 mA.
5) Adjust the current flowing through COIL 1 = 0.5 A.
6) Note down the magnetic field at all locations by moving the probe linearly through the center of the
coil. Move the sensor probe by 2 cm distance.
7) Now disconnect COIL 1 and connect COIL 2. Repeat the steps 4-6 for COIL 2.
8) Now, connect both the coils in series and ensure the current through the coils is 0.5 A. If not, adjust it
to the value of 0.5 A. Repeat steps 4-6 for this configuration of BOTH COILS.
9) Draw the graphs between distance and magnetic field due to COIL 1, COIL 2 on one graph sheet.
10) Draw the graphs between distance and magnetic field for BOTH COILS and BT on one graph sheet
along the axis of coils as shown in Figure 4.

Observations:

No of Turns = 500,
Distance between the two coils = 9 cm (fixed),
Current through all coil configurations = 0.5 A (fixed)

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 Table I: Observation and calculation table for Helmholtz coil experiment.

S.No. Sensor position Magnetic Field (Gauss)

(mm) Coil 1 (B1) Coil 2 (B2) Both Coils Mag. Field = BT =
B1+B2
1
2
3
.
.
.

Result: The profile of magnetic field with distance along the axis of a circular coils carrying current is plotted
and the principle of superposition of two fields is verified.

Questions
Q 1. What is the Helmholtz coil arrangement?
Q 2. Why Helmholtz coils are required?
Q 3. What parameters influence the strength of magnetic flux density in between the inter-coil region?

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 Experiment No. 10

ENERGY BAND GAP OF SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Aim: To determine the band gap of a semiconductor diode.

Apparatus: Mini Oven with Heating Coil, Thermometer, Micro-Ammeter, Connecting Wires.

Formula-

E=(2.303)*2kβ Joule

β = Slope of the log10 R Vs. 1/T graph.

k = Boltzmann Constant (1.37  10 -23 J/(K-mole))

Conversion factor: 1 eV = 1.602 ×10-19 J

Theory – A single isolated atom is characterized by discrete energy levels. In solids, the energy levels are so
close that they appear to be continuous. Hence, the series of energy levels form a band. Electrons in outermost
shell are called valence electrons. The band of valence electrons is called valence band. It may be completely
or partially filled. It is the highest occupied band in solids. Conduction band is the next highest permitted band.
Electrons occupying this band are known as conduction electrons and are free to move in this band. The valence
band and conduction band are separated by a gap called forbidden energy gap.

Circuit Diagram:
Battery

Ammeter µA

Diode in
reverse bias

Oven Stone powder

Figure 1. Circuit diagram to connect the diode in reverse bias.

Procedure –

1. Connect the circuit, with diode reverse biased. A small current is observed.
2. Start heating the oven. As the temperature of the diode starts increasing, the leakage current also
increases. Heat up to 50° C.
3. Wait till it attains the highest temperature and starts cooling. Write down your readings now.
4. Note the temperature after every 2-3°C drop in it and record the corresponding value of current I, till
the final temperature reaches to 40-45 °C.
5. Find R using R = V/I, where V is supply voltage (which is fixed to 0.5 V)

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 6. Plot the graph of log10 R (on y-axis) vs. 1000/T (on x-axis), where T is in Kelvin.
7. Find slope of the graph β.
8. Calculate the energy band gap Eg in eV.

Table I: Observation and calculation table for estimating the energy bandgap of the given diode.

Sr. No. Temperature Absolute Current I R= V/I log10 R

in
t°C Temperature
T=273+t (10 ) (µA) (Ω)
(K)
1.
2.
.
.
.

Finding the slope (β): Plot a graph between 10 ( − ) ( − ). The slope

∆ ∆
= =
∆ ∆( )

Caution: Always keep in mind that x-axis is in the power of 10-3 range.

Calculation:

Result: The energy band gap of the given semiconductor specimen is found to be __________________eV.

Precautions:

1. The oven should not be heated beyond 50°C

2. Connection should be made correctly.
3. Voltage should be kept constant.

Questions
Q 1. What are semiconductors?
Q 2. Why resistance of semiconductors decreases with increasing temperature?
Q 3. What is meant by forward and reverse biasing?

34
Syllabus

35
36
 Course Outcome Statements:

Bloom’s Level
CO Statement

Explain the fundamental concepts and working principle of the Physics

1
experiment and its set-up.
Demonstrate the necessary skills to perform the given Physics
2
experiment.
Analyze the recorded data to arrive at a conclusion with respect to the
3
objective of the given Physics experiment.
To communicate scientific details of the performed experiment by written
4
or verbal means.

Bloom’s
Ques. Details Marks Rubrics
Level
Prepare the experimental set-up for performing  Completed: 2
1 the given experiment and calculate the least 2  Partial work: 1 L3
count of the associated instrument.  Incomplete: 0
 Completed as per
instructions and schedule:
Tabulate the recorded set of data and compute 3
2 3  Done: 2 L2
the total reading.
 Incomplete: 1
 Not done: 0
 Completed the work
correctly with proper unit
Process the recorded data and show further and error estimation: 3
3 calculations to compute the unknown quantity. 3  Corrections required in L3
the submitted work: 2
Report the result in scientific units.  Too many mistakes: 1
 Incomplete: 0
Elaborate/ discuss/ describe the phenomenon  Lab interaction: 2
4 that was learnt while performing the given 2  Inactive/ passive: 1 L2
experiment.  Absent: 0

Course Articulation Matrix:

1: Slight (Low) 2: Moderate (Medium) 3: Substantial (High)
CO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2
CO 1 2 2 3 2 1 - - - -

CO 2 2 2 3 1 1 - - - -

CO 3 2 2 2 1 1 - - - -

CO 4 2 1 1 1 - - - -

37
 Rubrics for Physics Lab

Objective Marks Rubrics

Explain the fundamental concepts and working • Completed: 2

principle of the Physics experiment and its set- 2 • Partial work: 1
up. • Incomplete: 0

• Completed as per instructions

and schedule: 3
Demonstrate the necessary skills to perform the
3 • Done: 2
given Physics experiment.
• Incomplete: 1
• Not done: 0
• Completed the work correctly
with proper unit and error
Analyze the recorded data to arrive at a estimation: 3
conclusion with respect to the objective of the 3 • Corrections required in the
given Physics experiment. submitted work: 2
• Too many mistakes: 1
• Incomplete: 0

To communicate scientific details of the • Lab interaction: 2

performed experiment by written or verbal 2 • Inactive/ passive: 1
means. • Absent: 0

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