CHAPTER XIX

INDIA AND PERSIA

Scholars have traced out the relations between India and Persia t,
After a comparison of
the Rigveda and
very ancient times. Avesta it iy
common gods in the Rig Veda and the Zinda
!. There are manygods
The Iranian Mithra, Yima and Veretraghna have
Avesta.
the Indian Mitra, Yama and Indra Vritrahan,
Rigvedic godsin Rudra
counterpart and Nasatya become the Zoroastrian dernons Sau
According to the Avesta, the Daevas
va and
Indra, Naonhaitya.
Sauru and Naonhaitya plotted the destruction of Zoroaster nd
evil spirits. These gods of the Vedas
includitg
were, therefore, condemned as
demons in the Avesta and the very words for gods and demone
have a contrary meaning. The Vedic word 'Deva' has its counterpart in
becotse.
the Avesta as Daeva'. The Vedic word 'Asura' has its counterpart in the
Avesta as 'Ahura'. The Vedic Yama' has its counterpart in the Aveta
yima'. Not only these names are similar but the same applies to the
fathers. Yama is the son of Vivaswat and Yima is the son of Vivangh-
vat. Yama is conceived as the first man or the 'sole existing mori:
Yima is the first among men with whom Áhura Mazda conversed and
commanded him to further and increase the world. This latter aspert
occurs in the Rigveda where Yama is called 'Lord of races, the fatne:'
Both are connected with death. Yama is actually called Death in Rie
veda. Yama occurs largely in a human capacity in Vedas as Yima doe
in the Avesta. There is a link between the dogs of Yama described as
four-eyed watchers who guard the pathway to the underworld and the
two dogs each having four eyes who guard the Chinvat Bridge leading
to the next world in the Avesta. It is also possible to show close and
striking-parallels between the Vedic Mitra and the Avestic Mithra. Mithra
gives light just as the moon does. Varuna and Mitra give light ike to
TmOon. Mithra goes driving each day in a chariot with one golden whee!
rawn by four immortal horses having gold and silver shoes. Mitra
Varuna mount the gold-hued car at break of morning or ascend their un
chariot into the heavens. Mithra makes the water
move. Mitra and Varuna cause pl plants grow and spread
plants to flourish and rains to
Mithra is worshipped with Haoma juice after spreading Barsom gras
Mitra and Varuna are inyoked by worshippers with
Barhi grass and drink Soma juice, Mithra punishes invitation toand
contract-breakers
his eight friends watch the contract-breakers like spies from high plaes
Mitra and Varuna have species who visit every Spot and watch unceasingy.
The word for spies in the Avesta is Spaso and in Sanskrit it is Spas.
notions, The
There are certain mon religious and mythological notionsinthe
Vedic word "Yajna common COunterpart
Avesta.
of Apah Likewise,
meaning
meaning thewaters
sacrifice has Yasna as its
COunterpart
is Apo, ofof Hotar
vau mneaning priest is
meaning wind is Vay,
Laotar, tha

Apam Napat meaning son of Napal and of Gandh

meaning a deity connected withwaters
song38 is Gandarewa. There
Apam (Continued Page)

254
 INDIA AND PERSIA 255
pointed out that "not only single words and phrases but ven whole stan-
zas may be transliterated from the dialect of India into the dialects of
Iran without change of vocabulary or construction." The gods Indra,
Vayu, Mithra, Naonhaithya and Verehraghna of the Avesta are conpar.
va the gods Indra, Vayi, Mitra, Nasatya and Vritraghna respectively
of the Vedas. We have passages in the Avesta which can be compared
ih those in the Vedas. The Vedic god Varuna is stated to correspond
to the Avestan god Ahuramazda and Yama to Juma. Sone of the re-
Ferences in the Rigveda are stated to refer to Persia or Persian connection
in the days gone by. The Parthavas are stated to refer to Persians. It is
mentioned in the Avesta that Hapt-Hindu (India) was. the fifteenth of the
16 lands created by Ahura. There is also a reference to a moun
ain called UsHindava which may be Hindukush or the Himalayas.
The Boghaz-Koi inscriptions of about 1400 B.C. refer to certain con
tracts made between the King of the Hittites and the King of Mitani.
In those inscriptions some gods are mentioned as the protectors of those
contracts. The names of those gods are considered to correspond to the
names of the following Rigvedic gods: Mitra, Varuna, Indra and the
Nasatyas. As these gods were also known to the Avesta, it is the opinion
of some scholars that they were the common gods of the undivided Aryan
people prior to their separation as Indians and Iranians. It is pointed
out that the spellings of the names in the above inscriptions point out
to their Rigvedic origin.
The famous letters from Tel-el-Amarna refer to some Mitani princes
with names of Sanskrit form, e.g., Suttarna, Tusratta, Artatama, etc.
Some princes of the Kassites ruled over Babylonia and they had Sanskrit
names like Martyas (Marutas), Shurias (Surya), etc. A list of the deities
worshipped in Assyria in about 700 B.C. was found in the libraryequi of
Assurbanipal. That list includes the name of Assara-Mazas which is
raient to the Ahura-Mazda of the Avesta. However, the form Assara is
hearer the Sanskrit word Asura than Ahura of the Avesta.
Afghanistan and Baluchistan were the links between India and Per
that the
$12 Vedic scholars and the scholars of the Avesta maintain indi
COnmon territories referred to in the Rigveda were in the districts
(Gomal).
ate by the river Kubha (Kabul), Kurmu (Kurrum) and Gomti
nere are also references to Gandhara.

Tontinued from previos poge) Druh-druj and other mninor

IhritaTita Asvins-Aspina, Uhangh,
deities such as Arnaiti, Aryaman,
Usas,
Farohars and Piris, Yatu and others
by
functions have been drawnword
9twin he parallelisms in name Indo-Iranian Religion. The in
and
K. Hodivala in his: boonk entitled- Hindu
4 i a h in the Vedas has its counterparts as Hape as Haoma
Aesta The wiGrld Soma in the Vedas has its counterpartbetween plants
in the
of
here is a detailed resemblance that
There
the Airyas
they are
t a the Avest From the Avesta, it appa
 AN
256 between and Babylon
India
COmnerce
Trade and seventh century B.C.
Gulf before the between the
through the
been
Persian
a very close relationship
two cOuntries. here set0A
to have
empire was founded byMedia, Cyrus I who
BabyloniaTuled
The Achaemenian Bactria,
ria. B.C.
558 He to B.C. He conquered
even530advanced and irobuA
towards India through Gedrosia (Mekran),
was not successful in his expedition. According to Strabo, Cyrus "had
enterprise, escaping with seven men only" u 5
to abandon the establish his authority beyond the Kabul
that he could not
according to Pliny, Cyrus destroyed the famous city of Kanict valley whexe,
Cyrus I was succeeded by his son Cambyses but the latter was com.
pletely busy in the affairs of Egypt and consequently no advat1ce was
made in the required direction. Darayavaush or Darius was the third
sovereign of the Achaemenian dynasty and he ruled from about 529
throw SOme light on the relast.0
486 B.C. Three of his inscriptions Bahistan
between India and Persia. In the Rock inscription datcd
Gandhara is mentioned in the list of 520-
18 B.C. Gandara or his subjet
.countries. His Persepolis inscription of 518-515 B.C. clearly mentions the
Punjab as a part of the Persian empire. His third inscriptions
Nakshi-Rustam also refers to the Punjab as a part of his empire. It is
cdear from above that the Indus Valley was conquered by Darius, Thit
fact is also supported by Herodotus who states that out of the 20th Satr.
pies of Darius, the twentieth divisicn was in India. He also says tha
the Indians paid a tribute which was larger than all the rest. The
amount was fixed at 360 nlents of gold dust which is equivalent to a
million pounds sterling. Herodotus also tells us that in about 517 B.C.
Darius sent a naval expedition under Scylax, a Greek adventurer, to ex
plore the Indus. Skylax equipped a fleet upon the upper waters of the
Punjab rivers in thê province of Gandhara and in the thirteenth month
reached the sea. Thus, the Indus Valley was annexed by
fleet was sent into the Indian Ocean. Darius and a
According to Herodotus, Darius maintained a special Indian torë
which took prominent part in the wars
Indian contingent consisted of infantry, between Greece and Persia. Ine
commanded by a Persian general cavalry and chariots ana
fought with cane-bows and called Pharnazathres. Its foot soldiers
by wild asses.
Herodotus iron-tipped
was impressed arrows. Its chariots wete drawnthe
Indian soldiers. The control of by the cotton dress of
to have
continued Persia over the Indian
amply proved by an during the reign of Xerxes of Kzshayarsha. satrapis This is
scription, Gandhara andinscription of Xerxes from In that in
proved by the presence of Sindu are mentioned as Persepolis. his is also
by him to
of the inyade Greece. Indian forces in his army which Satrapies.was employed
Indian troops: "The Herodotus has given the following description
carried bows of can and Indians, clad in garments made of cotton,
is possible that the
control
arrows
of
of cane, the
Persia over latter
the above
in iron." It
Indian territories
continued, up to. the time of Darius III who, tippedto Arrjan,
according em-
ployed
der,
Indian Toops in the battle
of Alexan-
Arbela of 330 B.C. against
 INDIA AND PERSIA
257
Derarding the extent of Pcrsian dominion in
observes : "Although the exact limits of the India, v, A. Smisl
cannot be determined, we know that it was
Indian Satrapy (under Darius)
Arachosia (Kandhar) and Gandhara distinct
(N W. Punjab). from Aria (Herat),
prised, therefore, the course of the Indus from It must have cOTN-
Pbe whole of Sindh, and perhas included Kalabagh to Sea, inchud-
a considerable portion of
Punjab, east of the Indus,"
It is possible that by the timE of Darius IlI,
the
nt the Indian provinces must have grown weak andcontrol
of Persia
the whole of
h.Western India was parcelled out into innumerable kingdorms and
republics who were fighting against one another. No
not present a united tront against Alexander.
wonder, they could
The Nandas of Magadha
also did not try to bring the regions under their controi.
Persian Influence on India. (1) The contact between India and Per.
sia must have influenced India in many ways. In the irst place, Per.
sian coins were current in the Indian dominions. Ihe standard goll
coin of Persia was Daric. The silver Persian coin was calleri Sigloi or
Shekels. Both gold and silver coins were imported into India.
(2) The Kharoshti script was introduced by the Persian officials in
the north-western frontier and this cont1nued to be in use till the fourth
century A.D. The Kharoshti script was derived from the Aramaic sCript
of Persia.
(3) The pillars of Asoka with round bell-shaped abac1 and bull or
lion capital are of pure Persian origin. The use of winged animals as
capitals of pillars was borrowed from Persia. The style of the edicts of
Ascka seems to have been borrowed from Persia. An inscription from
Taxila is in Aramaic script and that shows the hold of the Persian lan
guage.
(4) Indian merchants carried their goods to the various parts of the
vast Persian empire and that added to the commercial prosperity of the
ountry. Indian scholars and philosophers moved freely in the Persian
empire and that led to closer relations with Western countries in gene
ral and Greece in particular. Indian philosophers have been referred to
as puting questions to Socrates. They questioned Socrates about the
object of his philosophy and his reply was that it was an inquiry into
human afairs. The reply of the Indian philosophers was that "no one
could inquire into human affairs if he was ignorant of divine ones."
(6) The Persian nobles were employed by Mauryan kings. This is
npiy proved by the mention of Tushaspa, a Persian, as the Governor
of Kathiawar in the reign of
Chandragupta Maurya.
6) Chandragupta Maurya borrowed the hair-washing ceremony from
the Persian kings. Likewise, the custom of burning sacred fire in the
TOOm where the meetings of the Council of Ministers were held, was
Probably also borrowed from Persia.
(7) Persian women (Yavanis) were employed by Indian rulers as their
hodyguards and
India. in search that
of
must have brought
fortune.
many familics from
Persia to
 North-Western pfo
introduced the use of Aramaic script and an inscrins:
sian clerks discovered at Taxila. Aramaic script was partly
that scrip has
ed and adapted
been
for the writing of Indian dialects and this new
entirely from the Aramaic
hang
script
derived
is called
and
Kharoshti.
contains aspirated
It is
consonants
guages. The Kharoshti script became the
prot
which are required in IndiaPe o-type
principal script of Turkistan,
It remained inin use in
Bactria, Afghanistani the Punjab and Sind. use in
countries till the third century A.D. when it was finally driven outtheseby
the Indian Brahmi. Persian architecture was introduced by the Persian
governors and was used by the Indian Emperors of the Mauryan
M dynasty.
The pillars of Asoka with round beil-shaped abaci and bull or Jion capit
tals are of pure Persian origin. The use of winged animals as capitak
of pillars and pilasters was introducd by Persian architects and remain.
ed in use till the end of the first century B.C. Persian noblemen were
employed by the Mauryan Emperors and one of them Tushapha was the
governor of Kathiawad. (Pre-historic, Ancient and Hindu India, pp, 82.
88).
We may conclude with the following observation of V. A. Smith,
"The continuance of strong Persian influence upon India is indicated by
the prevalence of the Kharoshti script, a variety of Aramaic, in the pro
vinces near the frontier, by the long continued use of the Persian title
of Satraps, by the form of the Asoka inscriptions and by the arhitec
ture. Some smal particulars which happen to be recorded are sufiient
to show that in the tÉme of the first Maurya Emperor, the cOurt
afected by Iranian practices. The Arthasastra rule that the king, when
consulting physicians and ascetics, should be seated in the room wherePersian
the
sacred fre has. been kept, seems to be an indication that the
ritual was honoured at the Mauryan court. We are told also that cere
splendid
monial washing of the king's hair was made the occasion of 2
festival when the countries offered rich presents to the king. That obser
vance recalls the Persian birth
hair-washing ceremony on the sovereign's
day as described by Herodotus."

SUGGESTED READINGS
Chattopadhyaya, S. The Rule of the Achaemenids in India (Indian
torical Quarterly, 1949, pp. 184-204).
Cunningham, A Coins of Ancient India,
Hodivala, S. K.: Studies in Parsi History.
Tairazbhoy R.A : Foreign Influence in Ancient India.
Marindle, I. W.: AncientIndia as described in
classical Litera
 CHAPTER XX Wassag

Jed
by
ALEXANDER'S INVASION OF INDIA
Great, is a landmark in
The invasion of Alexander, the the history
considered to
of India. The date of his invasion is rightly Alexander be the
anchor of Indian chronology. It is true that
invasion had some verystayed in sheet-
for about 19 mnonths only but his Indiina
direct effects.
Alexander was the son of Philip of Macedonia.
important
He had Aristole
as his tutor but he does not seem to have been impressed verye
by his philosophy. He was more interested in the exploits of
great
heroes like Hercules and Cyrus than in the philosophy of his tutor. When
his father died in 335 B.C., Alexander ascended the throne. At
time, he was hardly 20. He was extraordinarily ambitious and wola that
ike to become world famous by his onquests. Within 2 years, he ca
lected an army of 30,000 foot soldiers and 5,000 horsemen and in 9a
B.C., he set out for the conquest of the Persian Empire. Before start.
ing on this expedition, he had already conquered the neighbouring states
and consolidated his position.
Conquest of Persia. Between 334 and 330 B.C., Alexander was busy
in the Persian wars. Darius Codomannus, King of Persia, was not as
strong as his predecessors Darius I and Cyrus were and consequently
he could not check the advance of Alexander.
Without much difficulty,
Alexander was able to conquer Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt. However,
the decisive battle of Persia was fought at Arbela in 331 B.C. Darius
was defeated and murdered by one of his Own satraps. After that,
Alexander captured and destroyed Persepolis, the capital of Persia.
Seistan was also occupied by the Greek troops. Alexander founded a
new city called Alexandria .of the Arachosians which is now known a5
Qandhar. He also conquered and occupied Afghanistan and Bactria. 5y
328 B.C., Alexander was able to conguer all the territories of the er
sian Empire and modern Afghanistan. He took up the title of "the
Great King of Persia,"
The ambition of Alexander was not satisfed and he decided to
the master of "the land of milk and honey" (India). He
divide
army 1nto two parts. One part was kept by him under hs 0eto0
mand and the other part was sent undcr the command of Hephaestion
and Perdikkas towards India. He con
task of
himself undertnnk.he
quering and subduing the peopie or uIe iNorthern ce. .Llexander had the
to fight against the tribal chief byGreek
who was called Astes (Hasti) the
Greeks. His capital was at Hasti stood
Pushkalavati.
Siege of his walled town for full 20 Astes or The

ASvayanas and
ciear frosm the Asvakayanas
days till he fell fighting.
and
fought the invader to a mat taken prisot
fact that as many as 40,000 of them were
this is
ence,
260
 ALEXANDER'S INVASION OF INDIA 261
many
As ma 230,000 oxen fel! into the hands of
as
army of 30,000 cavalry, 88,000 Alexander.
Asvakayanas
ers. had an The
mercenaries and 30
elephants. infantry, 7,000
They were all assermbled in the fort of
Massaga which was on the banks of the River Masakavati. They
were
led bytheir Queen Cleophis (Kripa ?) and were "resolved to defend their

ALEXANDER'S ROUTE

ABHISARA
KABUL
SEIS
TAN xING DOM OF
ELY POROS
yéNEMA
RANI
BEAS
MALLO!
OXYDRAK L
SuTLEJ
ROUTE OF
GEDROSIA CRATE RU
THAR OR
INDIA
JUMNA
MAKRAN
ROUTE OF KINGDOM OF
DESERT
GANG
ALEXANDE
ROUTE OF NEARCHUS
MUSICANUS
PPATALA
RANN OE
CUICH

ARABIAN
SEA

-fryof to the last exremity'". So great was the enthusiasm for the de-
the : Ountry that even women took part in the fighting. Even
inerWerCfurioüs
a enares preferred *a glorious death to a lite with dishonour."
bartle, Massaga was captured. A large number of per.
eantaredinassacred. The free cities of Aornos Bazira, O
after long sieges.
Ora or
After consolidating his position Dyrta
in the
 ANCIENT INDIA
262
the river
hill territories,
Alexander decided to cOss Indus. A
according to Foucher
16 bridy
which was abou
was constructed at Ohnd sacrificed to the gods on a
above Attock. Alexänder
80days. At Ohind,
and gave his army resttheforruler of Taxila.
magnifcent Tnilt
Alexander
embassy from Ambhi,
Ambhi made his
receiveà n
to Alexander and also sent
prsents to him.
From Ohind, Alexander proceeded towards Taxila.
Taxila, Ambhi came Out of
submis1on
When he
about four or five mile away from
tal to greet him. While Ambhi recognized
Alexander as
his his caçpi.
the latter also treated hím with great courtesy and generosity.
At overlort
recogniTaxziedla,
the ruler of the Abhisara tribe sent his representatives and
Alexander as his overlord.
Battle of Hydaspes. Poro8, the king of the Jhelum
asked to submit but he refused to do so.
had 80,000 foot soldiers, 4,000 horsemen, 300 chariots
territory,
Accordingandto Arrian, PorsWA
The armies of Alexander and Poros faced each otHer on200the elephanta,
banks of the river Jhelum (Hydaspes). Alexander found that opposi it
te
practically impossible to cross the river in the face of was
the enemy. After long delays, he hit upon a plan. A lotopposition
of noise fromw
created by soldiers and an attempt was made to mpress
that the Greek soldiers were going to cross the river in front of upon Poros
his
What was actually done was that the river was
crossed about 16 army.
milk
above the camp at night. Thus, after having stolen a
der made a sudden attack on the army of passage, Alexan.
Poros. Poros was taken by
surprise and in spite of his bravery, he
taken prisoner. It is stated that when Poroswas was
defeated, wounded and
der and asked how he would like to brought before Alexan
that he wanted to be "treated as a be treated, his proud reply was
king".
pressed by his personality and treated him Alexander was greatly im
returned to him but he recogDized Alexander generously.
as his
His kingdom w
memorate his victory, Alexander founded two cities overlord. To com
and Nikaia near the
Thelum river. called Boukephala
Alexander crossed the Chenab or Akesines and
inhabiting the region between the Chenab subdued the tribe
ed the Ravi to conquer the and the Ravi. Then he cr
"enjoyed the highest territories of the Kathaioi or Kath25 ws
reputation
for
captured after bitter fighting. As courage."
many as 17,000 persons
Sangla, were killed
their capital,
and 70,000 were made
Were struck with terror cáptives, The neighbouring cities like Sau
and submitted without
When the armies of anv further resistane.
refused to proceed further. Alexander
Alexanderreached
made the
a stirring
Beas or appeal to they
his
Hyphasis, sok
diers but his words
fell ledHattheon charge in the battle against Poros,
cavalrý general who had Koinos
gave
the following unwilling ears. Ultimately.

the otler, Greeks,

reply:"From
salians as sonn as you Saw theyour had ranksno you
stomach for
sent away further
home
the The
toils....0
where all of tiem some have willing
are not been setled
residents: others stillfounded
in the share Ourby tols
and cities
numbersdangers.They
thelr
and.
in th ields of the Macedonian
of
WOunds
army have lost some
baitle, others have been disabled by
 ALEXANDER'S INVASION OF INDIA 263
others have becn lclt behind in differCnt parts of Asia, but the majority
discasc. A few only out of many survive and
have perished by these
few poSSCSS no longer the samc bodily strength as before, while their
spirits are still depressed. You see yourself how many Macedon
ians and Grccks startcd with you and how few of us are left." He con
chhded his oration with the following words : "Moderation in the midst
of succeSs, () king ! is the noblest of virtues, for, although, being at the
head of so brave an army, you have naught to dread from, morta foes,
vet the visitations of the Deity cannot be foreseen or guarded against
by man'".
The speech of Koinos was greeted with loud applause and under
the circumstances, Alexander gave orders for retreat in 326 B.C. Before
retreating, 12 huge altars were built on the river Beas. To quote Arrian,
"Alexander divided the army into brigades which he ordered to pre-
are 12 altars equal in height to the loftiest military towers while ex
ceeding them in breadth, to serve both as thank-offerings to the gods who
had led him so far on the path of conquest, and as a memorial of his
achievements. When the altars had been constructed, he offered sacri
fce upon them with the customary rites, and celebrated gymnastic and
equestrian games".
Retreat. Although Alexander would have liked to conquer the
whole of India, he had to retreat from the Beas. It was partly due to
the fact that his soldiers had become home-sick. They had left their
to meet their kiths
country many years ago and would like to go back
and kins. The opposition which they met in the Punjab Greeks must have
The had
given them a foretaste of what was going to come,
small re
to fight every inch of the territory in the Punjab. Even the
publican states in the Punjab fought so valiantly that Alexander's troops
vast
must have felt that it would be beyond their power to defeat the
empire of the Nandas under Mahapadma Nanda.
Anyhow, Alexander and his army returned to the Jhelum from the
Beas. A lot of time was spent in making preparations for the journey
collect
from the Jhelum to Sindh. About 2,000 boats of all types were the
both sides of
ed. An army of about 120,000 men was to march on
river. Alexander also divided his possessions into six Satraps. Three Sat
east of the Indus,
Taps were created west of the Indus and three on the
Satraps
he three western Satraps were Greeks and the three eastern
Were Indians. Peithon was posted as the Governor of Sindh. Nicanoir
the Indus." It
put in-charge of the province called "India-west-of dsh
tOnsisted of the lower Kabul valley and hill tracts up to the Hinaun under
with its capital at Pushkalavati or Charsada. Philippus was put
of Paro
Nicanor. Oxyartes was appointed the governor of the province "Alexa1
adac or Kabul Valley with its capital at a new city called
under the Caucasus"The three Satraps cast of the Industo were the
put under Ambhi king of Taxila, who ruled from he Indus
King
to the Hyphasis and
Hydaspes, Poros who ruled from the Hydaspes
of Abhisara co14ntry who ruled over thÇ rest of the territory.
river Ravi, the
When the Greeks reached the lower coUrse of the inhabiting Mon-
Mal3omery
lois and. Oxydrakai which were the republican states Their allied
and, Multan districts, began L0aarrass them.
 ANCIENT INDIA
264
10,000 horse and more than 900
leftfoot,
strength was 90,000
their Brahmanas the pen for the sword and died ighting "
taken as prisoners." Alexander rcceived a very scrious wOund and
sequently there was an indiscriminate massacre of the people.
hariots, En
reached the basin of the river
When the Greek army
was trouble once again
fused tunadoffer
Mousikanos, a powerful chief of
Alexander and no wonder the
submissin to hatIndusar, ta,thet,t
Sindh to fight against him and defeated him, The Grcek
continued their march till they
reached Patala. It was here
nis departure from
xander made final arrangements for Nearchos
Covethrnatt Ae a

under Iidia.
by sea. With ihe Herest
a major portion of his armyPersia through Baluchistan. In set
his army, he marched for
reached Babylon near Baghdad where he died at
the early 323 3C, be
age of 33.
thirteen years, he had compressed the energies of many life-times."
"Into
After Alexander's death. The poaition of the Greek
the west of the Indus became very insecure. First of all, governors
to
Kandhar
Tais
ed the standard of revolt. The Asvakayanas killed the Greek

NiSacanottrap,,
Nicanor. Commandant Philippos was appointed in place of
Philippos was the most experienced Greek Administrator in India
no wonder he was appointed to succeed Nicanor. However, he
was assassinated. Acording to Arrian, Philippos fell a victim to himslk
jealousý between the Greeks and Macedonians but that was also mo
due to the discontentment of the people with foreign rule. The mis
der of Philippos was really a fatal below to the Greek rule.
has been described as the pillar of Greek imperialism in India. When Philippos
his murder took place in 325 B.C., Alexander was still in a position to
mme back and set things right. However, he did not do so, All that
he did was that he asked the king of Taxila "to assumne the administra
tion of the province previously governed by Philippos until he cold
send a Satrap to govern it." However, no Satrap was ever sent and the
King of Taxila remained in-charge of the same. Thus, the ruler of
Taxila was able to extend his authority beyond the Indus and the fro
tiers up to the Kabul Valley and Hindukush. Eudamus was the only
Greek agent left in India. He was in-charge of the military garrsot
at Pushkalavati. He was the commander "of the
scattered bodies o
Greek and Macedonian troops with authority over the various colotiso
of Hellenic nationality."
When Alexander died in 323 B.C. at Bakylon, there was a lot of
confusion in his Empire. His generals met and decided to divide the
Empire of heir Was partitioned
masterin among
for the second tipe themselves.
321 B.C. On that The Empireno part of India
orcasion,
east of the Indus was included as a part of hat Empire. Peithon,the
Greek Governor of Sind, "was ofthe
removed and he was put in-charge only
próvince between the Ihdus and wasthe
Greek agent left in India. Paropanisadai.
He had Eudamusin the Empir
no ofiial position
heset
and was completely ignored at the
time of partitions. Probably, vallers
himselfup as the leaderof the Hellenic
"Outlanders" left in the
of the Indus and the Hydaspes. However, he also left India doog.
B.C, to help his chief Eumenes met his
against Antigonos,but he
 his province and
He died fhghtingjoincd
peithonleft
#similar fate. in thethebattle
struggle but he
of Gaza along
alsowith
met Deme-
with
Wo other Greck was left in India.
trius.
Causcs of defeat of Indians. A
the Grecks under Alexanderqucstion has wmetimes been ask-
to why were successful against the
Indians. to V. A.
According Smith, "The triumphant progress of
xander from the Himalayas to the sea
demonstrated the inherent
Ale-
weak-
ness of the
greatest Asiatic armics when
and discipline."
confronted with European skil
However, it is more appropriate
and bravery, the armies of to say that in spite of
their heroism the small republican states
were defeated because they lacked of
the Punjab
organisation worth the name. There was no leadership. TIhey had no
unity of
resources, The result was that direction. There
wAS no pooling of the various states were
defeated one by one. If instead of fighting at isolated
presented a united front against their common enemy,centres, theyreason
there is had
n believe that the invaders would have been driven away. This is clear
om the fact that when the Indians under Chandragupta Maurya made
an effort to drive out the Greeks from India, they were completely suc
esful. It is not just to talk of any inherent defect in the Indian armies.
Efects of Alexander's invasion. "The importance of the Indian
ampaign of Alexander has been both exaggerated and under-estimated."
There are some writers who believe that India was completely Hellenis
ed as a result of the invasion of Alexander and there are others who hold
the view that India was not affected at all. The truth lies midway bet
ween the two extreme views.
(1) According to Herr Niese, all the later development of India de
pended indirectly upon the institutions of Alexander and Chandragupta
Maurya recognised the suzerainty of Seleucus Nikator. This extreme

iew is not supported by any other writer. According to V. A. Smith,

Ihe campaign (of Alexander), although carefully designed to secure a
permanent conquest, was in actual effect no more thana brilliantly SUC
mark save
stul raid on a gigantic scale, which left upon India no The wounds
Tae horrid scars of bloody war. India remained unchanged. again as the
o battle were
quickly healed; the ravaged fields smiled
their interrupted
pattent oxen and no less patient husbandmen resumed teeming swarms
and the places of slain myriads were filled by the
t
not Hellenised. She continued to live her
pópulation. India was
passing of the Macedonian
splendid isolation, and forgot the
No Indian author, Hindu, Buddhist, orAgain, Jain, makes even the
"Alexander stayed
faintes allusion to Alexander or his deeds." far-reaching his plans may
*y rineteen months in India, and, however those few months of
age been, it is manifestly impossible that during institutions on a per-
8ant ónhicc he should have founded Hellenicof Hindu polity and
structure
materially affected the the sort, and within two
As a mnatter of fact, he did nothing of garrisons under Eudemos
of his with the exception of smallMacedonian rule had been
eath,
Valley, the whole apparatus
of
trace of it remained.
The
not a of a
year 316. B.C. the existence
way:Åiter the India is
vf Alexarnder's direct influence oftypes which were
Greek
st:uck by

In0delled in imitation of
 CHAPTER XXI
CHANDRAGUPTA AND BINDUSARA

Importance of Mauryan Dynasty. According to Radha Kthe

Mookerji, "The foundation of the Mauryan empire is a unique eve
Its glory is enhanced by the
circumstances
it was achieved. It was achieved against fornidable difficultiesin ibih
in Indian History.

by the establishment of a foreign rule

in the country as
of Alexander's victorious campaigns in the Punjab during
Smith,
the perid
two years, 327-325 B.C." According to Dr. V. A. The advent
f the Mauryan dynasty marks the passage from darkness to light ta
thr historian. Chronology suddenly becomes definite, almost preti
kuge empire spring, into existence, nifying the innumerable fraero'
of ds.racted India; the Kings, who may be described with jutice
Emperurs, are men of renown, outstanding personalities whose qualitie
can be discerned, albeit dimly, through the mists of time: gigantic world.
wide religious movements are initiated, of which the effects are still feie
and the affairs of secluded India are brought into close touch with tho
of the outer world."
It is rightly pointed out that before the Mauryas the dates in Indian
history are controversial. However, with the coming of the Mauryu
chronology becomes definite. The synchronism of Chandragupta with
Seleucus and his identification with Sandrocottus in Greek literature put
Mauryan chronology on a sound footing. Asoka is found to be a con
temporary of Antiochos of Syria, grandson of Seleucus. Moreover, we
possess abundant material for writing the political, social and religious
history of the Mauryas. This material comes from Indian and foreign
sources, The account we possess of the
ied in rihness or detail till we reach the Mauryan period is never equak
system of administration was a modern reign of Akbar. The Mauryan
fected and the departmental system was one. The old system was pe
invasions of India by Alexander and Seleucusbrought into existence. The
contact with the Western world. Men like brought India into intima
chus lived at the Mauryan Megasthenes and Dap
capital,
foreign countries. National life began toand Asoka also sent
missions for
iod. Alot was done in this develon in the Mauryan
ful progress. direction by Asoka. Art also made wonder
Oligarchies and republicswere were
between the. Aryans and non-Aryans barriers
and thereThewas a cu/
broken,uprooted.
nination of India's social systemn in the
Mauryan
Sources of. Mauryan History : (1) Kautilya' period.
s Arthasastua. The mos!
important source for writing the history of the Mauryas is Kautilya's
Arthasástra. The hookis divided It into
180 Prakaranas or sub-divisions.
15 Adhikaranas or Sections, and
has about 6.000 Slokas. The book
was discovered by Sham asastri in 1909 and ably translated by him. The

270
 CHANDRAGUPIA AND BINDUSARA 271
book is more a manua! for the
lity disc ussing the philoophy administratoT
and
thas a theoretial wGrk 9n
fundamentai prínipies of adninis
Pot ot of political Miene, it is mainly
problems of the government and onerned with the poiitical
both in peace and war. describes its nahinery and
funtisn,
Controversy about its authorship. There has been a ZIeat contro
uersy about the date of Arthasastra.
astri. N, N. Law, V. A. Smith, Fleet and Acording o Shamasastri, Ganapati
was written by the Print Minister of Jayaswal, Kautilya's Arthasastra
according 10 Winter nitz, jolly, Keith, and Chandragupta Maurya. However,
f a much later age and was Dr. Bhandarkar, the work is
written in the early enturies of ihe
tian era. It is pointed out that if the work Chris
ilya, the Prime Mininer of was really writtn by Kau
been some teferenE in it to Chandragupta Maurya,
the Mauryan Empire and ís
there ought to have
tive machinery. There is absolutely no administi
the Muniipal Boards mentioned by reference in the Arthasastra tc
Megasthenes
Boards. Ihe fact that the views of Kautitya and alyo the Military
person also suggests that the real author of the himself are given in the third
hitm. The Arthasastra does not shhow that its work was different frorn
part in politis. It is incedible that author played a very active
work of this king without hanakya could have written
revealing
that Kautilya conpiled a book of peronal touch. It is posible
by the author akong with other political aphorisns which are quoted
there is no means of proving that writers but with more approval. But
Prime Minister. Kautiva in question is the Mauryan
Acording to Dr. Jolly.
wa a theoretician ad not a the real author of Kautilya's Arthasatra
a state of medium size. statesnan. He was probably an official in
The took was
of the myths curent regarding that attributed to Kautilya on account
upon ax the master and reator of the fabulous ninister who was Looked
law of polity and the author
all the floating wisdom on the of
of Kautilya do not refer to hinsubjt of Niti. The traditional accounts
as the author of any
fon. His name is not even
301 of India as given in Dentioned by Magasthenes.literary
The
composi
descrip
tn the fourth century B.Ç.Arthasast does not show that the author lived
ra
Mauryas and ihe Sabha of Patanjali in his Mahabhashya refers to the
Chandragupta
ane, of Kautilya. The nane of but he does not mention the
ing faisehood Kautilya is a mere nick-name denot
h Minister änd hypocrisy whih could hardly have been devised
of. by
classibcatiöns And(handragupta himselt. andThecould
puerile distinctios, worknotis befulltheof work of a
pedantic

third,Atording Dr. Joily. Kautilya'

century (Navam Shravam)points
A.D. Dr. jollv
s Arth.
out
sastraWas
written in the
tht both Kautilya and Bhasa
in comnon and Kautilya takes it as
tenintion quently, he must háve borrowed it from Bhasa whose
ihird tentury A.D. Kautilya and
merely converted the lawsYajnavalkya- agree in their laWs.
of Yajnavalka into Sutras.
alk ya is third century A.D. The Rajadharma given
ahyirat i an embryonic condition as comnpared with the
 ANCIENT INDIA
272
Kautilya's Arthasastta
detailed provisions given in Kautiiya's Arthasast ra. the Guptas. The
its date must be near
knows the Purana and hence mentioncd in Kautilya'y
Vaisika, one of the sections of Kanasastra, is terns of Sanskrit gram-
Arthasastra, Kautilya's Arthasastra knows technical Astrology anddivina
mar and is acquainted with Ashtadhyayi of Panini. planets are mentioncd
tion are known to Kautilya's Arthasastra, and two book on metal.
name in that book. Kautilya's Arthasastra knows
by also knows of technical terms on
lurgy called Sulba Dhatu Sastra. It "His work is the
mining, architecture, fnance, jewels, alchemy, etc.
field of polity than a
outcome of a long period of literary activity in thefor not nxing its age
production of a creative genius-another reason Kautilva
limit too high." The Greeks do not mention the name of
Kautilya's Arthasastra named alchemy which was a later growth. It also
mentions Suranga which is from the Greelk term Syrin. The description
of India as given by Megasthenes and the inscriptions of Asoka do not
give us an advanced stage as given in Kautilya's Arthasastra. Kautilyas
Arthasastra mentions written documents and this fact is contradicted by
Megasthenes, who says that the Indians did not know the art of writing,
Megasthenes does not mention the tax on gambling, liquors, etc., but
the same are mentioned in Kautilya's Arthasastra. The name of Patali.
putra is not mentioned in Kautilya's Arthasastra. The geographical
horizon of the author shows that the book was written in the South.

However, the above mentioned arguments are repudiated by the

Tndian scholars who hold that Kautilya's Arthasastra was written in the
4th century B.C. It is pointed out that Kautilya is mentioned in the
Indian tradition and the writings of the various writers. References are
made to. him in Panchatantra, Kamandak, Dandin, Medatithi, etc.
the whole book of Megasthenes has not come down to us, it is not p
per to base any concusions on mere extracts from that book. It
WrOng to say that Kautilya did not know of any large empire, but the
acquainted with only a small kingdom Kautilya himself says thatand the
imperia! tract (Chakravarti Kshetra) lay between the Himalayasneighbours
Ocean 9,000 Yojanas in the straight line. There were many
of Chandragupta Maurya both in the south and in the north-west. It
1s true that Patanjali does not mention Kautilya, but that do not
prove that Kautilya did not exist before him. Patanjali also does does
mention the names of Asoka, that
not mean that hose persons Bindusara or Buddha. However,
Patanjalidoe
not mention them did not exist simply because given w
Moreover, if the name of "Kautilya" was
him b÷ his parents the same could
a Gota nane not be changed. foretathers
coming
Kautya who bre the name down from generations.
Kauhers
The expla
the t h athe
tion to Dr. Jolly and not Kautila or give
Kautili should show thatthe
Arthasastra was writlen by Chanakya.
a There is nothing to outSoldieryin
verse Navars Pandit, It is also pointed
War. Ihis is Sravam
as old as
is a
memorial verse used in exhortingon the
beli

thas the laithless history itself.The verse is based

s h o ythst

soldiers
Kauiilya borrowed u from go to hell. There is nothing to from
onh
th

curresit
one and mernorial
Bhasa
verses, Kautilya gives He might
have borrowed
it
gives

the question Bhasa

borrowing fromtwo verses not aarise.
of and
him does
 CHANDRAGUPTA AND BINDUSARA 272
It is truc that there is a lot of similarity between Kautilya's Artha
sAstra and Yajnavalkya, but that does not prove that Kautilya did not
belong to the 4th century B.C. Kautilya uses the term 'Yukta' which
means an oficial. In the inscriptions of Asoka, the term 'Yuta' is men-
tioncd. The latter term was not understood before the publication of
(ionsArthasastra as it had gone completely out of use. Yajnaval.
could not understand the term as used in Kautilya's Arthasastra
kya where Kautilya
he used Yogyva had given Yukta and he also used
and where Kautilya had used the term 'Ayukta.' This can
term 'Ayogya
the
cxplaincd only on the hypothesis that Yajnavalkya merely versified
be laws of Kautilya, and in same places even did not understand them.
the
rhe Dharmasastras deal with the laws of Dharma and the Arthasastra
concerned with the principles and laws of the Artha. Moreover,
is
thereis nothing to prove that the Rajdharma given in the Mahabharata
is in an embryonic state. In the theiry part, it was more developed
Arthasastras.
than that given in the
The Puranas are known to be the oldest Dharmasastras. The Bha
wrichya Purana is mentioned by Apastamba. The same is the view of
Paroiter. The terms Purana' is also mentioned in the Chhandogya
Upanishad.
The Vaisika book was written by Dattak before Vatsayayan and there
is nothing to show that the Vaisikas were not written before 300 B.C.
There is nothing in Panini's work which goes against the theory that
Kautilya belonged to the time of Chandragupta Maurya.
Divination is as old as the Atharvaveda. The origin of astrology
is also very old. Nothing can be proved from the mention of two planets.
The knowledge of metallurgy in India is very old. There has been
found cast iron in the Mauryan stratum at Pataliputra. Cast gla_s seals
were also found with Mauryan and pre-Mauryan lettering by The Dr.
Spooner. There is a mention of seven metals in the Yajurveda.
,COmposition of the cast coins found at the earliest Mauryan level is the
Same as that prescribed in the Arthasastra.
time of Alexander.
Syrnix was employed in sieges in India in theAlexander
Kautilya lived before and after the invasion of and conse
quently he could use the term.
inscrip
: regards the argument based on Megasthenes and Asoka's original work
must not be forgotten that we do not possess the were registers
Mezasthenes. Moreover, Megasthenes says that there to milestones.
eyt on the roads to find out distances. He also refers
Jatakas, also refer to written tablets. The inscriptions ot ASOka
The non-ne
that the art of writing was known to the people. mentions
Kautilya Kasi,
Pataliputra proves nothing. Moreover, Kuru, Kamboja,
Nepal, Kukura. Lididhavi, Malla, Panchala, Saurashtra,
was pred..*ninantly north-
Madras, etc. AH this shows
not southern.
that his horizon

condusiveiy thet Kautiiva

certain evidence which shows B.C. Tc 1Se oI Yukts
iRiacasfra Was wTitten in the 4th
century
to the, Mauryan times
and the
geographica! horizon