IMCG F6/2 ST #25

ASSIGNMENT NO# 1
SUBMITTED BY
VARISHA AHMED
BS CS (1)
ROLL NUMBER (1268)

SUBMITTED TO
MAAM SHAHINA NAZ

COURSE
ICT

Outline
● Introduction to ICT
● Characteristics of computer
● Generations of computers
● Classification of computers
● Types of computer
● Software and hardware
● Difference between hardware and software
● Data and types of data
● Information processing cycle
● Von Neumann architecture brief introduction: Stored program concept and instruction
cycle

ICT (information and communications

technology)
ICT, or information and communications technology (or technologies), is the
infrastructure and components that enable modern computing. Among the
goals of IC technologies, tools and systems is to improve the way humans
create, process and share data or information with each other. Another is to
help them improve their abilities in numerous areas, including business;
education; medicine; real-world problem-solving; and even leisure activities
related to sports, music, and movies.

There is no single, universal definition of ICT because the technologies,

devices and even ideas related to ICT are constantly evolving. However, the
term is generally accepted to mean all devices, networking components and
applications. When combined, these help people and organizations interact
in the digital world.
Technologies included in ICT
ICT encompasses the internet-enabled sphere and the mobile one powered
by wireless networks. It includes antiquated technologies, such as landline
telephones, radio and television broadcast -- all of which remain widely used
alongside today's cutting-edge ICT pieces, such as artificial intelligence and
robotics.

The internet, internet of things, metaverse, virtual reality and social

media are also part of ICT, as are cloud computing services, video
conferencing and collaboration tools, unified communications systems and
mobile communication networks. Emerging, work-in-progress or still-nascent
technologies like 5G/6G, Web3, and quantum computing are also in the ICT
universe.

Any technology, infrastructure, component, or device that enables

communications, data sharing, and global connectivity between humans
and between humans and machines is included in the umbrella term ICT.

Characteristics of Computer System

A computer is a fast electronic device that processes raw data, performs

arithmetic and logical operations, and produces output. Characteristics of
computer systems depending on their size, capacity, and specifications. But, the
major characteristics of the computer can be classified into Speed, Accuracy,
Diligence, Versatility, Reliability, Consistency, Memory, Storage Capacity,
Remembrance Power, and Automation.
Let’s go over the characteristics of computers.

1. Speed

● Executes mathematical calculations faster and more accurately than

humans.
● Processes millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second.
● Operations are performed in microseconds and nanoseconds.
● Saves time by completing tasks in seconds that may take humans hours.
● Measured in terms of GigaHertz (GHz) and MegaHertz (MHz).

2. Diligence

● Does not tire and can work continuously without rest.

● Conducts millions of calculations per second with complete precision.
● Consistently performs millions of jobs without weariness or loss of
concentration.
● Superior memory capabilities compared to humans.

3. Reliability

● Produces consistent output; results do not vary unless input changes.

● Same input will always yield the same output.
● Generates consistent results for similar sets of data.

4. Automation

● Capable of performing tasks automatically once programmed.

● This feature can replace thousands of workers by executing jobs
autonomously.
● Automation is achieved through programs, scripts, or batch processing.

5. Versatility

● Can perform different types of tasks with the same accuracy and efficiency.
● Capable of multitasking, such as listening to music while working on
PowerPoint or WordPad.
● Supports a variety of applications simultaneously.

6. Memory

● Can store millions of records, which can be accessed with precision.

● Memory storage capacity is measured in Bytes, Kilobytes (KB), Megabytes
(MB), Gigabytes (GB), and Terabytes (TB).
● Features built-in primary memory.
7. Accuracy

● Low chances of errors during computations and operations.

● Errors typically occur due to incorrect data input by humans.
● Performs operations and calculations quickly and accurately.

Generation of Computers

Basic Terms
Vacuum tube – an electronic device that controls the
flow of electrons in a vacuum. It used as a switch,
amplifier, or display screen in many older model radios,
televisions, computers, etc.

Transistor – an electronic component that can be used

as an amplifier or as a switch. It is used to control the
flow of electricity in radios, televisions, computers, etc.

Integrated circuit (IC) – a small electronic circuit printed on a chip

(usually made of silicon) that contains many its own circuit
elements (e.g. transistors, diodes, resistors, etc.).

Microprocessor – an electronic component held on an

integrated circuit that contains a computer’s central
processing unit (CPU) and other associated circuits.

CPU (central processing unit) – It is often referred to as the brain or

engine of a computer where most of the processing and
operations take place (CPU is part of a microprocessor).

Magnetic drum – a cylinder coated with magnetic material, on which

data and programs can be stored.

Magnetic core – uses arrays of small

rings of magnetized material called
cores to store information.

Machine language – a low-level programming

language comprised of a collection of binary digits (ones and zeros) that the
computer can read and understand.

Assembly language is like the machine language that a

computer can understand, except that assembly language
uses abbreviated words (e.g. ADD, SUB, DIV…) in place of
numbers (0s and 1s).
Memory – a physical device that is used to store data, information and program in a
computer.

Artificial intelligence (AI) – an area of computer science that deals with the simulation
and creation of intelligent machines or intelligent behave in computers (they think,
learn, work, and react like humans).

Classification of generations of computers

The evolution of computer technology is often divided into five generations.

Generations of
Generations timeline Evolving hardware
computers

First generation 1940s-1950s Vacuum tube based

Second generation 1950s-1960s Transistor based

Third generation 1960s-1970s Integrated circuit based

Fourth generation 1970s-present Microprocessor based

The present and the

Fifth generation Artificial intelligence based
future

First Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of first generation of computers

(1940s-1950s)
 ● Main electronic component – vacuum tube
● Main memory – magnetic drums and magnetic tapes
● Programming language – machine language
● Power – consume a lot of electricity and generate a lot of heat.
● Speed and size – very slow and very large in
size (often taking up entire room).
● Input/output devices – punched cards and
paper tape.
● Examples – ENIAC, UNIVAC1, IBM 650, IBM 701,
etc.
● Quantity – there were about 100 different
vacuum tube computers produced between 1942
and1963.

Second Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of second generation of

computers (1950s-1960s)

●
Main electronic component – transistor
● Memory – magnetic core and
magnetic tape / disk
● Programming language –
assembly language
● Power and size – low power
consumption, generated less heat, and smaller in size (in
comparison with the first generation computers).
● Speed – improvement of speed and reliability (in
comparison with the first generation computers).
● Input/output devices – punched cards and
magnetic tape.
● Examples – IBM 1401, IBM 7090 and 7094, UNIVAC
1107, etc.

Third Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of third generation of computers

(1960s-1970s)

● Main electronic component – integrated circuits (ICs)

● Memory – large magnetic core, magnetic tape / disk
 ● Programming language – high level language (FORTRAN, BASIC, Pascal,
COBOL, C, etc.)
● Size – smaller, cheaper, and more efficient than second generation computers
(they were called minicomputers).
● Speed – improvement of speed and reliability (in comparison with the second
generation computers).
● Input / output devices – magnetic tape,
keyboard, monitor, printer, etc.
● Examples – IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11,
UNIVAC 1108, etc.

Fourth Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of fourth generation of computers

(1970s-present)

● Main electronic component – very large-scale

integration (VLSI) and microprocessor.
● VLSI– thousands of transistors on a single microchip.
● Memory – semiconductor memory (such as RAM, ROM,
etc.)
○ RAM (random-access memory) – a type of data
storage (memory element) used in computers that
temporary stores of programs and data (volatile: its
contents are lost when the computer is turned off).
○ ROM (read-only memory) – a type of data storage
used in computers that permanently stores data and
programs (non-volatile: its contents are retained even when
the computer is turned off).
● Programming language – high level language (Python,
C#, Java, JavaScript, Rust, Kotlin, etc.).
○ A mix of both third- and fourth-generation languages
● Size – smaller, cheaper and more efficient than third generation computers.
● Speed – improvement of speed, accuracy, and reliability (in comparison with
the third generation computers).
● Input / output devices –
keyboard, pointing devices, optical
scanning, monitor, printer, etc.
● Network – a group of two or
more computer systems linked
together.
● Examples – IBM PC, STAR 1000,
APPLE II, Apple Macintosh, etc.
Fifth Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of fifth generation of computers (the

present and the future)

● Main electronic component: based on artificial

intelligence, uses the Ultra Large-Scale Integration
(ULSI) technology and parallel processing method.
○ ULSI – millions of transistors on a single
microchip
○ Parallel processing method – use two or more
microprocessors to run tasks simultaneously.
● Language – understand natural language (human language).
● Power – consume less power and generate less heat.
● Speed – remarkable improvement of speed, accuracy
and reliability (in comparison with the fourth
generation computers).
● Size – portable and small in size, and have a huge
storage capacity.
● Input / output device – keyboard, monitor, mouse,
trackpad (or touchpad), touchscreen, pen, speech
input (recognise voice / speech), light scanner, printer,
etc.
○ Example – desktops, laptops, tablets, smartphones, etc.

Classification of computers
 Types of computers based on each classification
category:

1. Based on Size
Supercomputers

Supercomputers are the most efficient in

terms of data processing and
performance. They are used for research,
space exploration, seismic research, and
nuclear testing.

● Their key features include the

following:
● Use of Artificial Intelligence (AI)
● Fastest and most powerful
● Very costly and large
● Employed by manufacturing companies
● Rapid information processing

Examples: IBM Summit, Fugaku, Cray EX. PARAM, jaguar, roadrunner.

Mainframe Computers

Mainframe computers, though less efficient

than supercomputers, are still very expensive.
They are used by large corporations and
government organisations for daily
operations, storing and analysing large
amounts of data.

● Their core attributes are as follows:

● a) Enormous memory
● b) Capable of running multiple
operating systems
● c) Numerous CPUs with powerful processing speeds
● d) Use of Tightly Coupled Clustering Technology

Examples: IBM Z series, Unisys ClearPath.

Minicomputers
Minicomputers, or midrange computers,
are used by small businesses and
industries. They support multiple users
and are slower than mainframes.
 ● A few of their essential characteristics include the following:
● a) Smaller and less costly than mainframes or supercomputers
● b) Capable of multitasking
● c) Used by small businesses

Examples: DEC PDP-11, IBM AS/400.

Microcomputers
Microcomputers, or Personal Computers (PCs), are smaller and more affordable. They include
a Central Processing Unit (CPU), microprocessor, Read-only Memory (ROM), Random Access
Memory (RAM), Input/Output (I/O) ports, and a bus system.

Some of their essential features are mentioned

here:

● a) Extensive personal use

● b) Smaller and less expensive
● c) Limited computational capacity
● d) Easy to use

Examples

○ Desktops
■ Examples: Dell OptiPlex, HP Pavilion.
○ Laptops
■ Examples: MacBook, Lenovo ThinkPad.
○ Tablets
■ Examples: iPad, Microsoft Surface.
○ Smartphones
■ Examples: iPhone, Samsung Galaxy.

Embedded Computers
Embedded computers have low power consumption, small size, fanless design, strong
stability, and are widely used in factory production line control, video surveillance, rail
transportation, ticket machines, automotive electronics, game consoles, and more.

Examples: Microcontrollers in washing machines, automotive control systems,

Raspberry Pi.

2. Based on Purpose
● General-Purpose Computers
These are the most common types used for a wide array of applications, such as document
processing, calculations, accounting, and Data Management. Examples include mainframes,
minicomputers, microcomputers, and laptops.
 Examples: Personal computers (PCs), workstations.

● Special-Purpose Computers

Designed to handle specific tasks, these computers cannot perform other tasks. Examples
include the robots in manufacturing, mobile phones for communication, calculators, and
computers in digital watches and petrol pumps.

Examples:

■ Gaming Consoles: PlayStation, Xbox.

■ Calculators: Scientific calculators, graphing calculators.
■ Dedicated Devices: Digital cameras, smart TVs.

3. Based on Functionality
● Analog Computers

Analogue Computers process continuously varying data, measuring physical

quantities like electrical current and voltages. They are used in scientific and
industrial applications.

○ Examples: Slide rules, analog synthesizers. astrolabe, oscilloscope,

television, autopilot, telephone lines, speedometer, etc.
● Digital Computers

Digital Computers store data in binary format (0s and 1s) and execute logical
and mathematical operations. They manipulate discrete data.

○ Examples:
■ Personal Computers: Desktop PCs, laptops.
■ Servers: Web servers, database servers.
● Hybrid Computers

Hybrid Computers combine digital and analogue systems, handling both types of
input. The digital component manages numerical and logical operations, while the
analogue component handles complex mathematical computations.

○ Examples:
■ Specialized Scientific Equipment: Some medical imaging devices.
■ Flight Simulators: Combining analog flight data with digital processing.

Software and hardware

Hardware
Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system that
you can touch and interact with. These components are essential for a
computer to function, performing tasks like processing, storing, and
input/output operations. Hardware is the foundation of any computing
system, working in tandem with software to process data and execute
commands.

Major Components of Hardware

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is known as the "brain" of the computer and is responsible for
executing instructions and processing data.
- Functions:
● Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical
operations.
● Control Unit (CU): Directs the operation of the processor by
interpreting instructions.
● Registers: Small, fast storage locations that temporarily hold data
and instructions.
Types: CPUs come in different architectures like Intel x86, ARM, and AMD
Ryzen.

2. Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is a type of volatile memory that temporarily stores data the CPU
needs while executing tasks.
- Functions:
● Provides fast, temporary storage for running applications and
processes.
● Allows quick access to data for faster processing.
- Types:
- DRAM (Dynamic RAM): The most common form, used in PCs.
- SRAM (Static RAM): Faster, but more expensive, used in CPU caches.

3. Secondary Storage Devices

Secondary storage is non-volatile and is used to store data
permanently even when the computer is powered off.
- Examples:
- Hard Disk Drive (HDD): Magnetic storage used for storing large
amounts of data.
- Solid State Drive (SSD): Flash-based storage that is faster than HDDs,
with no moving parts.
- Optical Drives: Devices like CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray drives used for
reading and writing data.
- USB Flash Drives: Portable storage devices using flash memory.
- Cloud Storage: Online storage provided over the internet (e.g., Google
Drive, Dropbox).
4. Input Devices
Input devices are used to enter data and commands into the computer.
- Examples:
- Keyboard: For typing text and commands.
- Mouse: For navigating and interacting with the graphical user interface
(GUI).
- Scanner: Converts physical documents into digital formats.
- Microphone: Captures audio input.
- Touchscreen: Allows direct interaction with the screen through touch.

5. Output Devices
Output devices are used to convey processed data from the computer
to the user.
- Examples:
- Monitor: Displays visual output (text, images, videos).
- Printer: Produces hard copies of documents or images.
- Speakers: Output audio from the computer.
- Projector: Projects computer screen content onto a larger surface like
a wall.

6. Motherboard
The motherboard is the main circuit board that connects all hardware
components, allowing them to communicate.
- Functions:
- Hosts the CPU, RAM, and other critical components.
- Provides expansion slots for peripherals (e.g., GPUs, sound cards).
- Facilitates data communication between all connected devices.

Software
Software is a set of instructions, data, or programs used to operate a
computer and execute specific tasks. In simpler terms, it tells a computer
how to function. It’s a generic term used to refer to applications, scripts, and
programs that run on devices such as PCs, mobile phones, tablets, and
other smart devices. The majority of software is written in high-level
programming languages due to the language being closer to natural
human language as opposed to machine language. The high-level language
is then translated into low-level machine code using a compiler or
interpreter for the computer to understand.
Types and examples of software

Among the many varieties of software that exist, the following are among the
most commonly used:

Application software
Application software helps an end user complete tasks such as doing
research, taking notes, setting an alarm, designing graphics, or keeping an
account log. It sits above the operating system and is distinct because it’s
designed for the end use and is specific in its functionality. It is sometimes
referred to as non-essential, because it’s installed and operated based on
the user’s needs – optional applications on a phone are one good example.

Other types of application software include:

​ Word processors:
​ Applications used for documentation. Examples include Microsoft
Word, Google Docs, and AppleWorks
​ Spreadsheet software:
​ Used to compute quantitative data. Examples include Microsoft
Excel, Google Sheets, and Quattro Pro
​ Database software:
​ Used to create and manage a database to organize data. This is
also known as database management software (DBMS). Examples
include MySQL, Clipper, and FileMaker
​ Multimedia software:
​ Tools that are able play, create, or record images, audio, or video
files. It’s used for video editing, animation, graphics, and image
editing. Examples include Adobe Photoshop and Picasa
​ Internet browsers:
​ Software used to access and view websites. Examples include Google
Chrome and Internet Explorer.
​ Email programs:
​ Software used for emailing. Examples include Outlook and Gmail.

System software
System software helps the user, hardware, and application software interact
and function with each other. It acts as a mediator between the user and the
hardware. It’s essential in managing the whole computer system when a
computer is first turned on, it’s the system software that is initially loaded
into memory. It isn’t used by end users. Instead, it runs in the background of
a device.

The most well-known example of this is the OS, which manages all other
programs in a computer. Aside from the OS, other examples include:
Basic input/output system (BIOS): the built-in firmware that determines
what a computer can do without accessing programs from a disk.

Boot: loads the OS into the computer’s main memory or RAM.

Assembler: Takes basic instructions and converts them into a pattern of

bits that the processor can use to perform basic operations.

Device driver: Controls a particular type of device attached to the

computer, such as a keyboard or mouse.

Difference between hardware and software

Criteria Hardware Software

Definition Hardware refers to

the physical, tangible
Software is the set of
instructions, programs,
parts of a computer and data that tell the
or electronic device, hardware how to
such as the CPU, RAM, perform tasks; it is
hard drives, and intangible and cannot
peripherals (e.g., be physically touched.
keyboard, mouse,
monitor).

Types Hardware can be

divided into four main
Computer software is
split into two main
categories: input categories: System
devices, output devices, software and Application
storage, and internal software.
components.

Effect of Hardware is not

affected by computer
Software can be affected
by computer viruses,
computer viruses, as hardware which can disrupt
systems, leak data, and
viruses is a physical object.
cause major operational
issues.
Transfer Hardware cannot be
transferred
Software can be
transferred electronically
electronically, but if the via a network system.
parts are compatible, Depending on what
hardware can be used software is being
in different computers. transferred, you can use
a USB drive to transfer it.
Some software needs to
be re-installed on each
device.

Development Hardware is developed Software is written, using

using electronics and a programming
other materials. There language. Though a
are lots of stages to different process,
creating hardware for creating software also
computers. has lots of steps that
need to be completed in
order for it to work.

Failures Hardware failures can

be caused by dust,
Software failures can be
caused by overloading,
overheating, and system errors, and
unregulated power version errors.
supply.

Visibility Hardware is visible Software exists in the

and can be touched form of code and is
and physically not physically visible,
handled. only visible through
its execution on
hardware.

Durability As computer hardware

is made up of physical
Software can develop
bugs and glitches over
objects, it can wear out. time, but backup copies
These parts can be can be used to replace
replaced. it.

Dependency Hardware requires

software to perform
Software requires
hardware to run and
specific tasks; without execute its tasks; without
software, hardware hardware, software
cannot operate cannot operate.
effectively.
Power Hardware requires
electrical power to
Software does not
require direct power; it
Requirement function and perform operates through the
tasks. hardware which requires
power.

Upgrade Hardware can be

upgraded by replacing
Software can be updated
or upgraded through
physical components code modifications,
(e.g., increasing RAM, patches, or new versions.
upgrading a hard
drive).

Examples Operating system

Processor (CPU), (Windows, Linux),
memory (RAM), hard application software
drive, motherboard, (MS Word, Photoshop),
network card, printer. drivers, and games.

Data and types of data

Data
Data in a Computer is a stream of bits (0s and 1s) that are saved in computer
memory. These bits of information can take the shape of text documents,
images, videos, etc. The CPU (Central Processing Unit) performs this data
processing and stores it in the computer’s memory. As a result, data in the
computer can be generated, processed, and saved.

Types of Data in Computer

Some of the most common types of data in computers are:

● Text: This type of data consists of characters, letters, numbers, and

symbols that make up wrote the language. Text can be stored in plain
text files or formatted documents like Microsoft Word or Google Docs.
● Image: An image is a visual representation of an object or scene.
Images can be photographs, illustrations, graphs, charts, or diagrams.
They can be stored in various formats like JPEG, PNG, or GIF.
● Audio: Audio data consists of sound waves that can be captured and
stored as digital signals. Examples of audio data include music,
 speech, and sound effects. Audio files can be stored in formats like
MP3, WAV, or AAC.
● Video: Video data is a sequence of images displayed in rapid
succession, creating the illusion of motion. Video data can include
movies, TV shows, or recorded video footage. Videos can be stored in
various formats like MP4, AVI, or MOV.
● Binary: Binary data consists of 1s and 0s that represent machine
language instructions. Binary data is used to represent program code,
executable files, and other types of data that are processed by a
computer’s CPU.

Information processing cycle

Information processing cycle is a sequence of events consisting of input, processing,

storage & output.

● - For a computer to perform useful work, it must receive instructions

and data from the outside world.
● - The input stage of the information processing cycle is when the
computer receives data and instructions.
● - Useful information is generated when appropriate instructions are
applied to the data.
● - Applying instructions to data occurs during the processing stage of
the information processing cycle.
● - To avoid re-entering data or reprocessing information, computers
can save information during the storage phase.
● - The storage phase helps save information for future use or retrieval.
● - The final result is delivered during the output stage of the information
processing cycle.
● - The computer processing cycle involves the same steps: input,
processing, storage, and output.

Phases of the of the cycle to process information

1. Input: Computer receives data and instructions

2. Process: Computer applies instructions to data to produce information
(organized Data)
3. Storage: Saving the information for a subsequent use or use in future
4. Output: Computer sends information to people in a usable format.
1. Input – Entering data into the computer
a. Feeding the collected raw data in the cycle for
processing. This is the raw data which is supplied for
processing & obtaining information.
b. Input can be done by utilizing various devices such as
keyboards, mice, flatbed scanners, barcode readers,
joysticks, digital data tablets (for graphics drawing),
electronic cash registers, etc
2. Processing – Performing operations on the data
a. Once the input is provided the raw data is processed by a
suitable or selected processing method. This is the most
crucial step as it allows for the processed data in the
form of output which will be used further.
b. Processing is usually done by CPU (Central Processing
Unit) in a computer. CPU is the crucial component for
getting the operations done.
3. Storage – Saving data in a soft/physical form
a. This is the outcome, and the raw data provided in the
first stage is now “processed,” and the data is useful and
provides information and no longer called data.
b. Storage can be done on external hard disk, inbuilt hard
disk, pen drives, micro SD cards, compact disks or even in
registers.
4. Output – Results obtained, i.e., information
a. This is the outcome, and the raw data provided in the
first stage is now “processed,” and the data is useful and
provides information and no longer called data. This
might be further used for data visualisation.
b. This can be used as it is or used for further processing
along with more data.

Von Neumann Architecture

The Mathematician John Von-Neuman designed the specification for the first
programmable computer in 1954, where the programs themselves could be stored
in memory, not just data.

In the Von Neumann Architecture, both data and instructions are stored in the
same memory unit. The CPU fetches an instruction from memory, decodes it to
determine the operation to be performed, and then executes the instruction. The
results are then stored back in the memory.The Von Neumann architecture is a
standard design of computer system with different entities connected over a bus.

1) Input/output or I/O Unit

2) A central processing unit (CPU)

3) Dedicated registers

4) Buses

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

● Performs arithmetic operations
● Performs logical decisions
 ○ IF X > 5 THEN
DO ……….

Control unit (CU)

● Coordinates how data moves around the CPU by sending a signal to control the
movement of the data
● Decodes the instructions fetched from memory

Registers
● Extremely small, extremely fast memory located in the CPU
● Hold small amounts of data needed as part of the fetch-execute cycle
● Each register has its own specific purpose
● It consists of 5 main registers
○ The Program Counter (PC)
○ The Memory Address Register (MAR)
○ The Memory Data Register (MDR)
○ The Accumulator (ACC)
○ Current Instruction Register (CIR)
● For each of the registers you must know
○ The name of the register
○ Its acronym
○ The purpose of the register

Buses

● Components within the CPU and wider computer system are connected by
buses
● A bus is a set of parallel wires through which data/signals are transmitted from
one component to another
● There are 3 types of bus:
○ Address - unidirectional, carries location data (addresses), data is written
to/read from
○ Data - bidirectional, carries data or instructions
○ Control - bidirectional, carries commands and control signals to tell
components when they should be receiving reads or writes etc..