conventional computer system simplify the

diagram of store program

Simplified Diagram of a Stored Program Computer System

+------------------+
| |
| Input Device |
| |
+--------+---------+
|
v
+--------+---------+
| |
| Memory | <--- Stores both data and instructions
| |
+--------+---------+
|
v
+--------+---------+
| |
| Central |
| Processing Unit | <--- Executes instructions
| (CPU) |
| |
+--------+---------+
|
v
+--------+---------+
| |
| Output Device |
| |
+------------------+
Key Components:

1. Input Device: This is where data is entered into the system (e.g., keyboard, mouse).
2. Memory:
○ RAM: Temporary storage for both data and program instructions.
○ ROM: Permanent storage for essential programs (like the BIOS).
3. Central Processing Unit (CPU):
○ Control Unit: Directs operations of the CPU and tells other parts of the computer
how to carry out tasks.
○ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical operations.
4. Output Device: This is where processed data is output (e.g., monitor, printer).

Concept of Stored Program:

● In a stored program computer, both program instructions and data are stored in memory.
The CPU fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and executes them. This
allows for flexibility in programming, as instructions can be modified or replaced by
loading different programs into memory.

Design mp system
In notes

Steps describing mp
1. System Requirements

● Define the purpose and functionality of the system.

● Identify performance requirements (speed, power consumption, etc.).

2. Microprocessor Selection

● Choose an appropriate microprocessor based on:

○ Architecture (e.g., 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit).
○ Instruction set.
○ Performance specifications (clock speed, processing power).
○ Availability of peripherals and support.

3. System Architecture

● Block Diagram: Create a high-level block diagram showing interconnections.

● Components typically include:
 ○ CPU: Executes instructions.
○ Memory: RAM (volatile) for data and program storage, ROM for firmware.
○ I/O Interfaces: For connecting external devices (e.g., sensors, displays).
○ Bus System: Data, address, and control buses for communication.

4. Memory Design

● Choose the types of memory:

○ RAM: For temporary data storage.
○ ROM: For permanent program storage.
○ Consider memory hierarchy (cache, main memory).

5. Input/Output Design

● Identify I/O devices needed (keyboards, displays, sensors).

● Design interfaces (parallel, serial communication protocols).

6. Power Supply Design

● Determine power requirements and design the power supply circuitry.

● Consider voltage levels and power consumption.

7. Clock Generation

● Design a clock circuit to synchronize the operations of the microprocessor and other
components.

8. Peripheral Interfacing

● Design interface circuits for peripherals (e.g., ADCs, DACs, timers).

● Implement necessary protocols (I2C, SPI, UART).

9. Software Development

● Write firmware/software to run on the microprocessor.

● Consider using an operating system or developing bare-metal code.

10. Testing and Debugging

● Implement testing protocols to ensure the system works as intended.

● Debug hardware and software issues.
Input port for microprocessor based design
In a microprocessor-based system, an input port is a crucial interface that allows external
devices to send data to the microprocessor. Here are some key points regarding input ports:

Types of Input Ports

1. Parallel Input Ports:

○ Allow multiple bits to be sent simultaneously.
○ Commonly used for connecting peripherals like keyboards or printers.
2. Serial Input Ports:
○ Send data one bit at a time over a single channel.
○ Used for devices like mice or serial communication interfaces (e.g., UART).

Key Components

● Data Lines: Carry the actual data being sent to the microprocessor.
● Control Lines: Indicate when data is available and when it should be read.
● Address Lines: Help the microprocessor identify which input port is being accessed.

Examples of Input Devices

● Keyboards: Typically use a parallel input port to send multiple keypress signals.
● Sensors: Often connected via serial ports to send readings.
● Communication Interfaces: Such as SPI or I2C, which allow multiple devices to
communicate over fewer lines.

Design Considerations

● Speed: The required data transfer rate can dictate the choice between parallel and
serial.
● Complexity: Parallel interfaces are generally more complex due to multiple lines.
● Distance: Serial ports can transmit data over longer distances with fewer lines.

Microprocessor Examples

● Intel 8085: Utilizes parallel ports for interfacing with devices.

● Arduino: Often uses both digital and analog input ports to read from various sensors
and inputs.

Digram in notes
output port for microprocessor based design
In a microprocessor-based design, the output port is a crucial component used for interfacing
the microprocessor with external devices. Here’s an overview of its functions, types, and
considerations:

Functions of Output Ports

1. Data Transmission: Output ports transmit data from the microprocessor to peripherals
like LEDs, motors, displays, etc.
2. Control Signals: They may also send control signals to manage the operation of
connected devices.
3. Status Indicators: Some output ports can drive status indicators or alarms to inform
users about system conditions.

Types of Output Ports

1. Digital Output Ports:

○ TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic): Suitable for interfacing with TTL-compatible
devices.
○ CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor): Used for low-power
applications and interfacing with CMOS devices.
2. Analog Output Ports:
○ PWM (Pulse Width Modulation): Used for controlling analog devices through
digital signals.
○ DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter): Converts digital signals from the
microprocessor to analog voltages.
3. Serial Output Ports:
○ UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter): Used for serial
communication with other devices.
○ SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) and I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit): For
communication with multiple peripherals.

Key Considerations

1. Voltage and Current Ratings: Ensure the output port can handle the required voltage
and current for the connected devices.
2. Number of Channels: Determine how many output lines are needed based on the
number of devices to be controlled.
3. Response Time: Evaluate the speed of the output port for time-sensitive applications.
4. Isolation: Consider isolation techniques for protecting the microprocessor from high
voltages or currents.
Microporcessor architecture and operation
Microprocessor architecture refers to the design and organization of a microprocessor, which is
the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. Here’s a breakdown of key concepts related to
microprocessor architecture and operation:

1. Basic Components

● ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): Performs arithmetic and logical operations.

● Registers: Small, fast storage locations within the CPU for temporary data storage.
● Control Unit (CU): Directs the operation of the processor, telling it how to execute
instructions.
● Cache Memory: A small amount of high-speed memory that stores frequently accessed
data and instructions to speed up processing.

2. Architecture Types

● Von Neumann Architecture: Uses a single memory space for both instructions and
data, which can lead to bottlenecks (known as the Von Neumann bottleneck).
● Harvard Architecture: Has separate memory spaces for instructions and data, allowing
simultaneous access and generally leading to better performance.

3. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)

● Defines the set of instructions that a microprocessor can execute. Common ISAs
include:
○ CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing): Supports a wide variety of
instructions (e.g., x86 architecture).
○ RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing): Focuses on a smaller set of
instructions that are executed more quickly (e.g., ARM architecture).

4. Data Path and Control Path

● Data Path: The part of the microprocessor that carries out data processing and
manipulation. It includes the ALU, registers, and buses.
● Control Path: Manages the data path operations based on the instruction being
executed. It generates control signals to direct the data flow.

5. Execution Cycle

Microprocessors typically operate in a cycle that consists of:

● Fetch: Retrieving the instruction from memory.

● Decode: Interpreting the instruction and preparing the necessary operations.
 ● Execute: Performing the operation defined by the instruction.
● Store: Writing back results to memory or registers.

6. Pipelining

● A technique that allows multiple instruction stages to overlap in execution, improving

throughput. For example, while one instruction is being executed, another can be
decoded, and a third can be fetched.

7. Parallelism

● Superscalar Architecture: Allows multiple instructions to be issued and executed in

parallel during a single clock cycle.
● Multicore Processors: Incorporate multiple processing units (cores) on a single chip,
allowing simultaneous execution of multiple threads or processes.

8. Clock Speed and Performance

● The clock speed (measured in GHz) determines how many cycles per second the
processor can execute. However, performance also depends on other factors like
architecture efficiency and cache size.

9. Power Consumption

● Modern microprocessors aim to balance performance with power efficiency, using

techniques like dynamic voltage and frequency scaling (DVFS) to adjust performance
based on workload.

Registers
Registers are small, fast storage locations within a microprocessor used to hold data temporarily
during processing. They are crucial for the CPU's operation, as they provide the quickest access
to data and instructions. Here’s an overview of their characteristics and types:

Characteristics of Registers

1. Speed: Registers are the fastest type of memory, providing rapid access for the CPU.
2. Size: Typically, registers are very small (usually 32 to 64 bits) compared to other memory
types (like RAM).
3. Purpose: They hold data that is being processed, instructions, addresses, and
intermediate results.
4.
Types of Registers

1. General-Purpose Registers (GPRs):

○ Used for a variety of functions, including holding operands for arithmetic
operations and temporary data.
○ In x86 architecture, for example, common GPRs include AX, BX, CX, and DX.
2. Special-Purpose Registers:
○ Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of the next instruction to be
executed.
○ Instruction Register (IR): Contains the current instruction being executed.
○ Stack Pointer (SP): Points to the top of the current stack in memory, used for
function calls and returns.
○ Base Pointer (BP): Used to point to the base of the current stack frame.
3. Status Register / Flags Register:
○ Contains flags that provide information about the status of the processor (e.g.,
zero flag, carry flag, overflow flag). These flags can influence control flow in
programs (e.g., branching).
4. Floating-Point Registers:
○ Specifically designed for floating-point operations, often used in scientific and
graphical computations.
5. Vector Registers:
○ Used in SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) operations, which allow the
processing of multiple data points in a single instruction, enhancing performance
in multimedia and scientific applications.

Usage in Operations

Registers play a key role in the execution of instructions:

● During the fetch stage, the CPU retrieves instructions into the IR.
● In the decode stage, the CPU identifies which registers to use for the operation.
● During execution, data from registers is processed by the ALU.
● The results can then be written back to a register or stored in memory.
the microprocessor state and bar graph liquid
level indicator working
A microprocessor state and a bar graph liquid level indicator can be integrated into a system for
monitoring fluid levels. Here’s how both concepts can work together:

Microprocessor State in the Context of a Liquid Level Indicator

1. Microprocessor State Overview:

○ The microprocessor manages the operation of the liquid level indicator,
processing inputs from sensors and controlling output displays.
○ The state includes:
■ Values in registers (e.g., current liquid level).
■ Instruction being executed (e.g., reading sensor data).
■ Status flags indicating system conditions (e.g., low battery).

Bar Graph Liquid Level Indicator

1. Components:
○ Sensors: Measure the liquid level (e.g., ultrasonic sensors, capacitive sensors,
float switches).
○ Microprocessor: Processes sensor data and controls the display.
○ Bar Graph Display: Typically consists of a series of LEDs or an LCD that
visually represents the liquid level.
2. Working Principle:
○ Sensing: The sensor detects the liquid level and sends this information to the
microprocessor.
○ Data Processing: The microprocessor reads the sensor data and determines the
corresponding liquid level.
○ Output Control:
■ The microprocessor activates a specific number of LEDs on the bar graph
based on the liquid level.
■ For instance, if the tank is half full, 5 out of 10 LEDs might light up.
○ Feedback Loop: The microprocessor continuously monitors the liquid level,
updating the display as needed.

Example Workflow

1. Initialization:
○ The microprocessor starts and initializes the bar graph display.
2. Continuous Monitoring:
○ The microprocessor enters a loop where it continuously reads data from the
liquid level sensor.
 3. Decision Making:
○ Based on the sensor data, the microprocessor determines the level of the liquid.
○ It may check for specific conditions, such as if the level is below a certain
threshold, to trigger alarms or other actions.
4. Display Update:
○ The microprocessor updates the bar graph display:
■ Activates the corresponding number of LEDs.
■ May also update a numerical display or send data to other systems for
logging.
5. Error Handling:
○ If a sensor fails or a condition is met (e.g., overflow), the microprocessor updates
its state and may activate warning indicators.

Block digram in notes

I/O data transfer

I/O data transfer refers to the methods used to move data between a microprocessor and
peripheral devices, such as keyboards, displays, storage devices, and sensors. Understanding
these methods is crucial for efficient system design. Here are the main types of I/O data transfer
methods:

1. I/O Methods

a. Programmed I/O (Polling)

● The CPU actively checks (polls) the status of a peripheral device to see if it is ready for
data transfer.
● Advantages:
○ Simple to implement.
● Disadvantages:
○ Inefficient, as the CPU wastes time waiting for I/O operations, leading to wasted
processing cycles.

b. Interrupt-Driven I/O

● The CPU is interrupted by the device when it is ready for data transfer.
● The device sends an interrupt signal to the CPU, which then pauses its current operation
to handle the I/O request.
● Advantages:
○ More efficient than polling since the CPU can perform other tasks until
interrupted.
● Disadvantages:
 ○ More complex to implement, requiring an interrupt handling mechanism.

c. Direct Memory Access (DMA)

● A specialized controller (DMA controller) manages the data transfer directly between the
I/O device and memory, bypassing the CPU.
● The CPU is only involved to set up the DMA transfer and to handle the completion
notification.
● Advantages:
○ High-speed data transfer, freeing the CPU to perform other tasks.
● Disadvantages:
○ More complex hardware and requires additional control logic.

2. Data Transfer Modes

a. Byte-Oriented Transfer

● Data is transferred one byte (or character) at a time. This is common for devices like
keyboards and serial ports.

b. Word-Oriented Transfer

● Data is transferred in larger chunks (e.g., 16 or 32 bits), which is efficient for high-speed
devices such as disk drives.

c. Block Transfer

● Multiple bytes or words are transferred in a single operation, which reduces overhead
and improves performance. This is often used in conjunction with DMA.

3. Bus Architectures

● I/O devices are connected to the CPU via buses, which are pathways that carry data,
addresses, and control signals.
● Common Bus Types:
○ Address Bus: Carries addresses from the CPU to other components.
○ Data Bus: Carries the actual data being transferred.
○ Control Bus: Carries control signals from the CPU to manage operations.

4. Data Transfer Protocols

● Different protocols define how data is transmitted over I/O interfaces, including timing
and signaling standards.
● Examples:
 ○ Serial Protocols (e.g., UART, SPI, I2C): Transfer data one bit at a time over a
single channel.
○ Parallel Protocols: Transfer multiple bits simultaneously over multiple channels.

5. I/O Ports

● Each peripheral device is typically assigned an I/O port or address in memory, allowing
the CPU to communicate with it.
● Memory-Mapped I/O: I/O devices are treated as memory locations, allowing the same
instructions used for memory access to be used for I/O.
● Port-Mapped I/O: Uses special instructions to access I/O devices via specific ports.

hardware control i/o

Hardware control for I/O (Input/Output) involves the mechanisms and protocols used by a
microprocessor or microcontroller to manage communication with peripheral devices. Here’s an
overview of how hardware control works in the context of I/O operations:

1. I/O Interfaces

These are the physical and logical connections between the CPU and peripheral devices,
facilitating data transfer. Common interfaces include:

● Serial Ports: Used for devices like keyboards and mice (e.g., RS-232, USB).
● Parallel Ports: Used for printers and scanners.
● Memory-Mapped I/O: Devices are mapped to specific addresses in memory, allowing
the CPU to use standard memory access instructions for I/O operations.
● Port-Mapped I/O: Uses specific I/O instructions to access device registers.

2. I/O Control Signals

Control signals orchestrate the interaction between the CPU and peripheral devices:

● Read/Write Signals: Indicate whether data is being read from or written to a device.
● Select Signals: Specify which device is being communicated with, especially when
multiple devices are connected.
● Acknowledgment Signals: Used by devices to indicate they are ready for
communication or have completed a task.

3. Data Buses

Data buses are used for transferring data between the CPU and peripheral devices. They
include:
 ● Data Bus: Carries the actual data being transmitted.
● Address Bus: Carries the address of the I/O device or memory location being accessed.
● Control Bus: Carries control signals that manage the operation of the bus system.

4. I/O Controllers

These are specialized hardware components that manage I/O operations:

● Peripheral Interface Controllers: Manage data transfer between the CPU and
peripherals, often handling specific communication protocols.
● DMA Controllers: Allow peripherals to transfer data directly to and from memory without
continuous CPU involvement, improving efficiency.

5. Interrupt Handling

Interrupts are signals that indicate that an I/O device needs attention:

● Interrupt Request (IRQ): A device sends an interrupt request to the CPU when it is
ready to send or receive data.
● Interrupt Service Routine (ISR): A special function that the CPU executes in response
to an interrupt, handling the I/O operation.

6. Polling vs. Interrupts

● Polling: The CPU continuously checks the status of I/O devices to see if they need
servicing. This is simpler but can waste CPU resources.
● Interrupts: More efficient, as the CPU can perform other tasks until a device signals that
it requires attention.

7. Control Registers

Peripheral devices often have control registers that the CPU writes to or reads from to manage
their operation:

● Command Register: To send commands to the device.

● Status Register: To read the status of the device (e.g., busy, error).
● Data Register: For reading from or writing to the device.

8. Example of I/O Control Workflow

1. Initialization: The CPU initializes the I/O device by writing configuration settings to
control registers.
2. Data Transfer:
○ Polling: The CPU checks the status register to see if the device is ready. If
ready, it reads/writes data.
 ○ Interrupt: The device interrupts the CPU when it is ready. The CPU pauses its
current task, executes the ISR, and handles the data transfer.
3. Completion: After data transfer, the CPU may read the status register again to confirm
the operation's success and may send further commands as necessary.

Instruction set
Instruction Set

The instruction set is a collection of machine-level commands that a processor can execute. It
defines the operations, data types, registers, addressing modes, and the methods for interacting
with memory and I/O devices. This foundational element of computer architecture allows
software to communicate effectively with hardware, enabling a wide range of applications.

Data Transfer Control Group

The Data Transfer Control Group is responsible for moving data between various components
of the computer, such as registers, memory, and input/output devices. Instructions in this group
facilitate operations like loading data into registers, storing data from registers to memory, and
transferring data between different hardware peripherals. This group ensures that data is
efficiently and accurately communicated throughout the system.

Logic Group

The Logic Group executes logical operations essential for decision-making and data
manipulation. It includes operations such as AND, OR, NOT, and XOR, allowing the processor
to perform bitwise operations and comparisons. This group is critical for tasks that involve
conditional logic, enabling programs to respond dynamically to different inputs and states.

Branch Group

The Branch Group controls the flow of execution within a program by enabling jumps to different
instruction addresses based on specified conditions. This group handles both conditional
branches, which depend on the results of prior operations, and unconditional branches, which
allow for jumps regardless of conditions. This capability is vital for implementing loops, function
calls, and complex program logic.

Stack and Machine Control Group

The Stack and Machine Control Group manages the stack memory used for function calls, local
variable storage, and context switching. It oversees operations like pushing and popping data to
and from the stack, ensuring that the program maintains the correct execution context.
Additionally, this group handles machine-level controls, such as interrupts and system state
management, which are essential for multitasking and resource allocation.

Arithmetic Group

The Arithmetic Group is responsible for performing mathematical calculations, including

addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. This group processes numerical data and is
fundamental for tasks ranging from simple arithmetic operations to complex algorithms used in
scientific computations. Its operations are essential for any application that requires numerical
analysis or data manipulation.

8085 Microprocessor

The 8085 microprocessor, developed by Intel, is an 8-bit microprocessor released in 1976. It

features a 16-bit address bus that allows it to access up to 64 KB of memory. With an 8-bit data
bus, the 8085 is capable of processing 8 bits of data at a time. It includes a simple instruction
set for basic arithmetic, logic, control, and data transfer operations, making it suitable for basic
embedded systems and educational purposes.

8086 Microprocessor

The 8086 microprocessor, also developed by Intel and introduced in 1978, is a 16-bit
microprocessor. It has a 20-bit address bus, enabling it to address up to 1 MB of memory. The
8086 features a 16-bit data bus, allowing it to process larger chunks of data simultaneously. It
includes a more complex and powerful instruction set compared to the 8085, supporting
advanced operations and memory segmentation. The 8086 can operate in minimum and
maximum modes, making it versatile for use in both single-processor and multi-processor
sysThe 8085 and 8086 microprocessors, both developed by Intel, have distinct architectures
and features that define their capabilities. Here’s a comparison of their architectures along with
key differences:

Architecture

8085 Microprocessor:

● 8-bit Architecture: The 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor, meaning it processes 8 bits of

data at a time.
● Address Bus: It has a 16-bit address bus, allowing it to address up to 64 KB of memory.
● Data Bus: The 8085 has an 8-bit data bus.
● Instruction Set: It has a relatively simple instruction set designed for basic arithmetic,
logic, control, and data transfer operations.
● Registers: Includes a set of general-purpose registers (6), a 16-bit stack pointer, and a
16-bit program counter.
 ● Operation Modes: It operates in a single mode and is suitable for basic embedded
systems and simple applications.

8086 Microprocessor:

● 16-bit Architecture: The 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor, capable of processing 16 bits

of data at a time.
● Address Bus: It features a 20-bit address bus, enabling it to address up to 1 MB of
memory.
● Data Bus: The 8086 has a 16-bit data bus, allowing for higher data throughput.
● Instruction Set: It has a more complex and powerful instruction set that includes a wider
variety of operations, including string manipulation and more advanced arithmetic
functions.
● Registers: Contains a set of 16-bit general-purpose registers, segment registers (for
memory segmentation), a stack pointer, and a program counter.
● Operation Modes: Supports both minimum and maximum modes of operation, allowing
for greater flexibility in system design and multi-processor configurations.

Diagram Differences

● 8085 Diagram: Typically features a simpler block diagram, highlighting the CPU,
memory (RAM and ROM), and I/O interfaces. It includes basic functional units like the
ALU, control unit, and registers.
● 8086 Diagram: The block diagram is more complex, showing the CPU divided into two
main units: the Bus Interface Unit (BIU) and the Execution Unit (EU). The BIU handles
data and address bus control, while the EU manages instruction execution and
arithmetic operations. It also illustrates the segmented memory architecture.
Microcontroller

A microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit designed to govern a specific operation in an

embedded system. It typically includes a processor core (CPU), memory (both RAM and
ROM/flash), and various peripherals such as timers, analog-to-digital converters, and
input/output ports, all on a single chip. Microcontrollers are widely used in applications ranging
from household appliances and automotive systems to industrial automation and robotics due to
their ability to control devices and processes with minimal external components.

Example: 8051 Microcontroller

The 8051 microcontroller, introduced by Intel in 1980, is one of the most popular
microcontrollers used in embedded systems. It features:

● 8-bit Architecture: Processes 8 bits of data at a time.

● Memory: Has a 16-bit address bus, allowing access to 64 KB of program memory and
256 bytes of internal RAM.
● I/O Ports: Includes four parallel I/O ports for interfacing with external devices.
● Timers/Counters: Equipped with timers for time-related functions.
● Instruction Set: Offers a rich set of instructions for arithmetic, logical operations, and bit
manipulation.

Example: PIC Microcontroller

The PIC microcontroller family, developed by Microchip Technology, consists of various 8-bit,
16-bit, and 32-bit microcontrollers. Key features include:

● Versatile Architectures: Available in a range of configurations, allowing for flexibility in

design.
● Integrated Peripherals: Many models include built-in peripherals like ADCs, PWM
generators, and communication interfaces (I2C, SPI, UART).
● User-Friendly Programming: PIC microcontrollers are often supported by easy-to-use
development environments, making them accessible for beginners and professionals
alike.
● Wide Applications: Commonly used in consumer electronics, automotive applications,
and industrial automation.