Islamabad Model College For Girls F-6/2, Islamabad

Course Title: ICT CS-110

Class: BSCS -1(Fall 2024)
Assignment No.3
Submitted by:
Varisha Ahmed (1268)
Submitted to:
Maam Shahina Naz
Date: / /2024

Outlilnes
● Main components of Computer System (input, processing, storage, output)
● i. Introduction to Input / Output devices (Mouse, Key board, scanners,
● microphone, camera, Monitor, Printers &plotters, speakers)
● ii. Introduction to RAM :(D-RAM & Static RAM), Cache
● iii. Units of Data Storage (Bit, Byte, KB, MB, GB, TB, PB)
● iv. Introduction to ROM & Types of ROM, Difference between RAM /
● ROM / Cache
● v. Introduction to Secondary storage devices (magnetic, Optical, etc)
● vi. Secondary Storage devices ( Hard Disk its components, Access time
● calculation)
● vii. Ports (serial, parallel, USB), slots, expansion cards, Power Supply
● viii. Introduction to CPU Basic Registers , ALU, CU
● ix. System Buses (Data, control & Address bus)

Computer System
A Computer System is an integrated collection of hardware, software, data, and user interfaces designed to
perform computations, process data, and carry out various tasks. It includes components that work together
to receive, process, store, and output information based on user input and predefined instructions.
Core Components of a Computer System
1. Hardware: The physical components of a computer that perform input, processing, storage, and output
functions.
- Examples: CPU, RAM, hard drives, input devices (keyboard, mouse), output devices (monitor, printer).

2. Software: Programs and applications that instruct the hardware on what tasks to perform and how to
perform them.
- Examples: Operating systems (Windows, macOS), productivity software (Microsoft Office), and specialized
applications (Adobe Photoshop).

3. Data: Information processed by the computer system, which may include text, images, audio, and video.
-Examples: Documents, databases, files, and multimedia content.

4. User Interface: The means through which users interact with the computer system.
- Examples: Graphical user interface (GUI) on a computer screen, command-line interface (CLI).

5. Networking and Communication: Components that enable a computer to connect with other systems
and exchange data.
- Examples: Network cards, modems, internet connectivity.

Functions of a Computer System

1. Input: Capturing data from external sources using input devices.
2. Processing: Performing calculations and executing instructions to transform input data into meaningful
information.
3. Storage: Saving data for immediate or future use, either temporarily (in RAM) or permanently (in storage
drives).
4. Output: Displaying or producing information for the user in a usable format, such as visual, auditory, or
printed output.

Types of Computer Systems

1.Personal Computers (PCs): Used by individuals for personal tasks like browsing, gaming, and word
processing.
2. Workstations: High-performance computers for tasks like graphic design and engineering.
3. Servers: Computers that provide data and services to other computers over a network.
4. Mainframes: Powerful systems for large-scale processing in :organizations like banks.
5. Supercomputers: Extremely powerful systems used for complex computations, like scientific simulations
and climate research.

Advantages of Computer Systems

- Speed and Efficiency: Computers process large volumes of data quickly and accurately.
- Storage Capability: Computers can store vast amounts of data.
-Automation: Systems can be programmed to perform repetitive tasks automatically.
- Connectivity: Computer systems enable communication and data exchange across the world.

Disadvantages of Computer Systems

- Dependency on Power: Computers require a constant power source.
- Security Risks: Systems can be vulnerable to cyber attacks and data breaches.
-Maintenance Costs: Upgrades, repairs, and software licenses can be costly.
- Data Overload: Managing and sorting large data volumes can become challenging.

Input Devices

The devices which are used to give input to the computer system are known as input devices. Data is
inputted into the computer system in raw format, which is then translated into a computer-understandable
form using input devices; after that, it is processed using a central processing unit, which produces output. In
another form, an input device is a type of peripheral device that allows users to interact with the computer
system.

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −

● Keyboard
● Mouse
● Joy Stick
● Light pen
● Track Ball
● Scanner
● Graphic Tablet
● Microphone
● Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
● Optical Character Reader(OCR)
● Bar Code Reader
● Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the computer. The
layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided
for performing additional functions.Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102
keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows
and Internet.

QWERTY Keyboards

QWERTY is the most usable keyboard. It's named after the first six letters in the top row of the keyboard. The
QWERTY keyboard's is significant due to its typing familiarity, standardization, and widespread support.
These features make it comfortable for most of the users, assuring simplicity of use and accessibility across
different devices and platforms.QWERTY keyboards are commonly found in personal computers and are
considered standard on typewriters. These devices are specifically designed for general typing tasks.

Advantages of the QWERTY keyboard

Some key advantages of the QWERTY keyboard −

● Ergonomic Designs
● Ease To Use
● Familiarity and Standardization
● Compatibility with Modern Devices
● Typing Efficiency
● Cost-Effective

Mechanical Keyboards

Mechanical keyboards employ unique mechanical switches for each key. Each
key on mechanical keyboards has a mechanical switch. Different types of
switches offer varying levels of tactile feedback and actuation force. They are
renowned for their durability, tactile feedback, and adaptability.Typists and gamers who demand accurate
and enjoyable typing love these switches because they give tactile and aural feedback.

Advantages of the Mechanical keyboard

The main advantages of mechanical keyboards are as follows −

● High-Quality Switches
● Typing Comfort and Performance
● Consistent Key Feel
● Customizable Switch Types
● Customization and Modularity
● Essential for fast typists and gamers who need to press several keys at once
● RGB Lighting

Membrane Keyboards

Laptops and cheap desktop keyboards have membrane keyboards. When pushed, a key contacts a rubber or
silicone membrane below the keys to register a keystroke.Membrane keyboards, which feature pressure pad
technology and a flat, flexible surface, are popular due to their distinct set of benefits.

Advantages of the Membrane keyboard

Some of the key advantages are as follows −

● Membrane keyboards are generally Cost-Effective

● A user can use it quietly; without making a noise
● Lightweight
● Portable
● Compact Design
 ● Sealed Surface
● Ease of Use
● Flexible Layouts
● Lower Power Consumption

Ergonomic Keyboards

Typing for long periods can cause muscle strain and discomfort; ergonomic
keyboards are specifically designed to alleviate these issues. Ergonomic keyboards
are intended to reduce strain and improve user comfort, especially during long
durations of typing.These include split keyboards and contoured keyboards, which are curved to fit the
natural hand posture.

Advantages of the Ergonomic keyboard

Some key advantages of ergonomic keyboards −

● Natural hand position which improves comfort and reduces strain

● Allowing each hand to operate in its natural position
● Minimizes Wrist Movements
● Enhanced Typing Postures like wrist rests and angled key layouts
● Increased Typing Efficiency
● Reduced Risk of Repetitive Strain Injuries
● Versatile Designs with Left-Handed Options
● Multi-Device Support

Gaming Keyboards

Gaming keyboards are optimized for gaming performance. Gaming keyboards are built exclusively for
gamers, with features that improve performance, comfort, and overall gaming experience.They usually have
changeable illumination, programmable keys, and anti-ghosting technology to prevent missed keypresses
during fast gameplay. Some gaming keyboards include mechanical switches for quicker responsiveness.

Advantages of the Gaming keyboard

The following are the main advantages of gaming keyboards −

● Contains Mechanical Switches

● High Polling Rate
● Improved Visibility using RGB Lighting
● Anti-ghosting and N-Key Rollover
● Contains Durable Switches
● Ergonomic Design enhances comfort and reduces fatigue

Wireless Keyboards

Wireless keyboards use Bluetooth or RF to connect to computers and other

devices without cords.Laptops, tablets, and smart TVs utilise them for convenience
and mobility. Wireless keyboards provide different benefits over wired keyboards, making them a popular
choice among many users.

Advantages of the Wireless keyboard

The following are the main advantages of Wireless keyboards −

● Increased Mobility and Flexibility

● Convenience and Portability
● Ergonomic Benefits
 ● Modern aesthetic appeal of a workspace
● Improved connectivity options like Bluetooth connectivity, multi-device pairing
● Enhances Productivity
● Gaming and Entertainment

Virtual Keyboards

Software-based virtual keyboards are utilised on smartphones and tablets. Tap or

swipe virtual keys to enter text or directions. Wireless keyboards are significant in
terms of enhanced mobility, convenience, ergonomics, and aesthetic appeal. Their
adaptability and ability to connect to different devices make them ideal for
multiple applications, including professional work situations, gaming, and home entertainment. With
developments in battery life and connectivity, wireless keyboards remain a practical and popular choice for
many users.

Advantages of the Virtual keyboard

The following are the main advantages of the virtual keyboard −

● No physical hardware required

● Space-saving
● Layout customization
● Adjustable key size and spacing
● Ease of access
● Protection against Keyloggers
● Secure environments
● Multifunctionality
● Predictive text and auto-correction
● Touchscreen interaction

Foldable Keyboards

Foldable keyboards are portable and convenient. Foldable keyboards, which can be compacted or folded for
convenient transport and storage, have various advantages over standard keyboards.Travellers and people
who require a small keyboard may fold or wrap them up for storage and transport.

Advantages of the Foldable keyboard

The following are the main advantages of the foldable keyboard −

● Compact Size
● Lightweight
● Portability and Convenience
● Easy Storage
● Multiple Device Support
● Ideal for On-the-Go Use
● Comfortable Typing
● Rugged Designs
● Water and Dust Resistance
● Cost-Effective

Mouse

Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm size
box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals
to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right
button and a wheel is present between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the
cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages

● Easy to use
● Not very expensive
● Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

The most common types of mouse are as follows −

Optical Mouse

An optical mouse is a type of mouse that makes use of a light-emitting diode (LED) or laser to detect
movement. It replaces the mechanical ball fixed in the traditional mouse. The optical sensor detects reflected
light on the surface and converts it into cursor movement on your computer screen.

The key components of the Optical Mouse are as follows −

● LED − LED gives proper illumination for the optical sensor to capture surface images.
● Optical Sensor − It’s a small camera that captures surface images quickly.
● Digital Signal Processor (DSP) − It determines the movement and analyses images captured from
optical sensors.
● Communication Channel − It sends data to the system
using USB, PS/2, wireless RF, or Bluetooth.

How Does Optical Mouse Work?

When an optical mouse is moved, it illuminates the surface

below it with a light-emitting diode (LED) or laser. A sensor in
the mouse captures the light reflected off the surface. The images are analysed by the sensor, and the
movement of the mouse is calculated based on the changes in the pattern. This information is then
transmitted to your computer, which adjusts the cursor accordingly.

Advantages of Optical mouse

Some key advantages of Optical mice are as follows −

● Optical mouse don’t require a mouse pad

● An optical mouse can easily move on any surface
● More precise and responsive
● Allows smoother cursor movement
● Optical mice are more durable as they don't have any moving parts which can clogged with dirt
● Eliminates mechanical fatigue and failure.
● It makes the system easy to use.
● No special surface required

Trackball Mouse

Trackball mice have a stationary ball on top that users may roll with their fingers or
thumbs. Trackballs are a technological alternative to traditional mouse input. It
comprises a ball in a socket that allows you to control the cursor's movement. Rolling
the ball with fingers moves the cursor on the screen. Trackballs are widely employed in applications with
limited area, such as arcade games or specialized jobs.

The key components of Trackball mice are as follows −

 ● Ball − The primary interface for the user, which can vary in size and material. It's typically designed to
provide a smooth rolling experience.
● Sensors − Detect the motion of the ball. Modern trackballs often use optical sensors for higher
precision.
● Microcontroller − Processes the signals from the sensors and converts them into data the computer
can understand.
● Communication Interface − Connects the trackball mouse to the computer (USB, Bluetooth, etc.).
● Buttons − Like a traditional mouse, trackball mice have buttons for clicking, and some models include
additional buttons for added functionality.

How does a Trackball Mouse work?

A computer trackball works by using sensors to detect the movement of the ball. When you rotate the ball,
the sensors detect the change in position and send the appropriate signals to the computer. These signals
are interpreted as cursor movements on the screen. Trackballs provide good control and are beneficial for
people with poor dexterity.Track recording also known as tracking, is a process of capturing and storing
information on the movement of an object or process. In computers, it can refer to the capture of user events
such as cursor movements, clicks, and keystrokes. This information can be used to better understand user
behaviour, optimize system performance, or create personalized experiences.

Advantages of Trackball mouse

Some of the key advantages of trackball mice are as follows −

● It takes less desk space

● It can be effectively utilised in limited workspaces.
● It reduces wrist movement
● It has precise control which can be utilised in graphic design or gaming
● It can be effectively moved on soft surfaces like beds or couches

Wireless Mouse

A wireless mouse is a computer mouse that doesn't require a physical cable to

connect to the computer. This mouse provides more flexibility and mobility. It
commonly uses radio frequency (RF) or Bluetooth technology to communicate with
the computer. Wireless mice can also link with the system using Bluetooth or USB devices. As they're
cable-free, so they move more freely.

The key components of a wireless mouse are as follows −

● Optical or Laser Sensor − Laser sensors often provide greater precision and can operate on different
surfaces.
● RF Transmitter − A wireless mice includes a matching receiver that plugs into the computer.
● Power Supply − Provides power for the mouse's activities, usually by AA or AAA batteries or a built-in
rechargeable battery.
● Buttons and Scroll Wheel − The user interface allows users to perform clicking and scrolling actions.

How a wireless mouse does Works?

● A wireless mouse uses radio frequency (RF) technology for transmitting data to your computer. RF
devices consist of two main parts: a transmitter and a receiver.
● The transmitter is housed within the mouse; the transmitter emits an electromagnetic (radio) signal
that encodes information about the mouse's movements and button clicks. The receiver connects to
the user's computer, the receiver accepts the signal, decodes it, and then forwards it to the mouse
driver software and the computer's operating system. The receiver is a separate device that plugs into
your computer, a specialized card for an expansion slot, or an integrated component.
● The mouse is connected to the computer through a crucial component known as the wireless
receiver, which is responsible for receiving signals from the mouse and converting them into
 instructions that the computer can comprehend. Typically, this receiver is a small USB device that can
be inserted into the computer's USB port. Additionally, certain wireless mice make use of Bluetooth
technology to set a connection, thereby eliminating the necessity for a separate receiver.

Advantages of wireless mouse

Some of the key advantages of trackball mice are as follows −

● Enabling users to get connected to a computer without physical cables

● Allows users to work on a computer from a distance
● Flexible and convenient
● Pairing and Security
● Mobility and Flexibility
● Ideal for use in home, office

Wired Mouse

They work without batteries or a wireless connection, making them a good solution
for those who don't want to worry about signal interference. These are connected to computers using
physical cables.

The key components of a wired mouse are as follows −

● Buttons and Scroll Wheel − This element is designed for clicking and scrolling actions.
● Cable − Sends power to the mouse and transfers data from the mouse to the computer.
● Optical or Laser Sensor − Capturing and analysing surface images detects the movement of the
mouse.
● LED or Laser − The surface is illuminated to enable the sensor to detect movement.

How Does Wired Mouse Work?

A wired mouse is directly linked to a user's desktop or laptop using a USB port. As it connects to the system
using physical cables it sends data using a cable. A dedicated cable connection ensures quick response.

Advantages of Wired mouse

Some of the key advantages of trackball mice are as follows −

● Plug and Play

● It is durable
● It has a dedicated connection to a computer so very hard to drop
● It is reliable
● Low Latency
● Cost-Effective
● No Battery Required
● It has consistent performance without the need for batteries

Gaming Mouse

A Gaming mouse is a specialized form of mouse which has been specifically designed to
improve the gaming experience by offering features that support precision, speed, comfort, and
customization. These mice are designed to cater to the specific requirements of different game genres,
including first-person shooters (FPS), real-time strategy (RTS) games, and massively multiplayer online
(MMO) games. Gaming mice have configurable buttons, adjustable DPI, and ergonomic ergonomics for
long-term usage. Gaming is optimised for rapid, accurate movements.

The key components of a wired mouse are as follows −

 ● Buttons − A gaming mouse has left and right-click buttons, a scroll wheel, and additional
programmable buttons. It might have 8 to 20 or more buttons.
● Scroll Wheel − The scroll wheel provides servicing to scrolling or customizable resistance.
● Sensor − Sensors used for tracking movement with high precision.
● RGB Lighting − Makes clear and attractive visibility.
● DPI Switch − Allows on-the-fly DPI adjustments to change sensitivity settings during gameplay.

How Does Gaming Mouse Work?

Gaming mice can modify their sensitivity, which can be customized in terms of dots per inch (DPI). As the
DPI increases, the cursor on the screen moves a longer distance for the same amount of mouse movement.
Typically, a higher DPI level (1000 DPI and above) is employed for gaming and monitors with exceptionally
high resolution. However, in a video game, the higher DPI can either be advantageous or disadvantageous
depending on the level of zoom in the scene. A higher DPI setting enables the player to execute rapid
movements, while a lower DPI setting facilitates more accurate and delicate movements.

Advantages of Gaming mouse

Some of the key advantages of a gaming mouse are as follows −

● High DPI provides a precise and responsive cursor movement

● It has extensive customization of buttons
● Ergonomic designs reduce strain
● It has quick access to in-game functions
● It has laser sensors
● It has acceleration and angle snapping

Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a
monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends.
The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.The function of the
joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing
computer games.

Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item
or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system
placed in a small tube.When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen
and the pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen
location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer,
instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the
ball, the pointer can be moved.Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires
less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a
square.

Scanner

Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for further
manipulation.Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that
can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.
Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer
can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be
stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever
the camera had been pointed at.Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it
converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of
drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.The
microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the
cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are
machine readable.This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
(MICR). The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.OCR scans the text optically, character
by character, converts them into a machine readable code, and stores the text on the
system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light
and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the
books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary
scanner.Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric
value, which is then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by
pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and
marked.It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having
multiple choice questions.

Output Devices
An output device is a hardware device that is used to show the processed results to the user in the form of
text, audio, video, visuals on a computer screen or a printed hard copy on paper. The output devices are
mainly categorised as audio output devices, visual output devices, audio-video output devices, and
print-based output devices. Different output devices can be connected to computer systems to retrieve the
output, based on the type of output and requirements.

Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

● Monitors
● Graphic Plotter
 ● Printer
● Speakers
● Headphones
● Projector
● GPS

Monitors

Monitors also known as Visual Display Unit (VDU), is an output device of a computer. It is the most popular
output device which looks like a TV screen and shows the output in the form of text, audio, video and
images. Overall, it produces output with visual effects to connect the user with the system. Images data
form tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends
upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screens used for monitors.

● Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

● Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The
smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than
one illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.A finite number of
characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series of character boxes -
a fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of
displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.

Components of Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The key components of a CRT Monitor are as follows −

● Electron Guns − Produces beams of electrons to display images

● Phosphorescent Screen − Once electrons hit on phosphor-coated screen, it glows and makes
visibility
● Circuit Board − Provides connectivity for external circuitry
● Deflection Yoke − It deflects the electron beam in precise patterns

Advantages

● Produces output with visual effects.

● It has good resolutions which ensure proper visibility of image-related outputs.
● No motion blur due to instant response time.
● It can display multiple resolutions without scaling artefacts.
● It has high refresh rates which reduces flicker and eye strain.

Disadvantages

● Large in Size
● Carries high weight
● A lot of power consumption
● Produces heat

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced
volume, weight and power requirements in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear
them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computers, and graphics displays.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

● Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. For
example, plasma panels and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
● Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from
some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).

Components of Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The key components of a Flat-Panel Display Monitor are as follows −

● Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) − It is positioned between two layers of glass or plastic and modulates
light to create images.
● Light Emitting Diode (LED) − it emits light and improves colour and contrast.
● Plasma Display Panel (PDP) − It contains small cells with phosphor coated to emit light.
● Quantum Dot Display − It contains quantum dots to enhance colour accuracy.

Advantages

Some of the key advantages of Flat-Panel Display Monitor are as follows −

● Smaller in size makes it easy to mount and transport.

● It consumes less power.
● It has higher resolutions which makes good picture quality.
● It makes users comfortable to get connected for a longer period and reduces eye strain.
● Available in different sizes.

Disadvantages

● Expensive as compared to CRT monitors.

● Its resolution is not up to mark as compared to CRT.
● It is a soft covering which may damage and be difficult to clean.

Graphic Plotter

A plotter, which is a type of printer, receives instructions from a computer to produce line drawings on
paper using one or more automated pens. In contrast to a standard printer, a plotter can create
uninterrupted point-to-point lines directly from vector graphic files or commands. Computer graphics and
engineering applications employ graphic plotters to create high-quality, accurate, and detailed drawings or
plots on paper or other media. It draws continuous lines accurately and is suited for vector drawings, unlike
a standard printer. Key features of graphic plotters are as −

● Vector Graphics − Vector graphics allow graphic

plotters to create lines and shapes precisely using
continuous points instead of dots like raster
printers.
● Pen or Pen-Like Tool − A pen or similar instrument
is drawn on paper for graphic plotters. The pen may
move X and Y on a moveable arm to draw complicated shapes.
● Applications − Graphic plotters are employed in engineering, architecture, cartography, and textile
design. They were popular for technical drawings and diagrams before digital.

A vector graphics plotter outputs accurate and detailed drawings. They are still used in sectors and
applications that need accuracy and high-quality output, even if digital printing has made them less
widespread.
Components of Graphic Plotters

The key components of a Graphic Plotter are as follows −

● Plotter Head − A plotter head contains multiple pens of different colours to draw images.
● Plotting Surface − It is used to hold and feed paper.
● Microcontroller − Controls the plotting process and interprets commands.
● Interfaces − It provides interfaces to connect USB, Ethernet, or wireless connections.
● Memory − A device used to Store plotting instructions to process temporarily.

Types of plotters

● Pen Plotters − It uses vector graphics and line drawings.

● Drum plotters − A drum plotter is a device that uses a rotating drum to draw on paper. The drum
revolves to create one direction of the plot, while the pens move to create the other direction.
● Flatbed plotters − Flatbed plotters are used to draw on paper placed on a flat surface.
● Electrostatic plotters − This printer draws on negatively charged paper with positively charged
toner.
● Inkjet plotters − The printer uses vector graphic technology to control the movement of the pen
plotters, which in turn drop ink beads of different colours onto the drawing surface.

Advantages

Some of the key advantages of Graphic Plotters are as follows −

● High Resolution − It has good resolution which opens it for CAD drawings.
● Colour Representation − It automatically sets colour matching in designs.
● Large Screen Size − It provides appropriate space to view large drawings.
● Software Compatibility − It is compatible with CAD software, graphic design, and related tools.
● Preview Functionality − A user can preview plots on the monitor to reduce errors and enhance
accuracy.
● Editing Tools − Multiple editing tools are available for graphics before plotting.

Printers

A printer is an output device, which is used to print processed data on paper. It is one of the most popular
output devices. The information that is printed is commonly referred to as hard copy because it physically
exists and is a more enduring form of output than what is displayed on a VDU. Printers play a crucial role in
generating hard copies of digital documents and images and are available in different types tailored to
specific purposes and settings. They cater to diverse user requirements, offering features such as top-notch
photo printing, speedy document output, and the ability to create three-dimensional objects, making them
suitable for home, office, or industrial use.

Types of Printer

Different types of Printers are categorised in the following image

Impact Printers

Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

● Very low consumable costs

● Very noisy
● Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
● There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

Types of Impact Printers

Generally, Impact printers are of two types −

● Character printers
● Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time. A printer that holds individual
characters until it is ready to print them. Instead of printing one line at a time, a character printer prints one
character at a time. Nowadays, these printers are not commonly used due to speed limitations and their
ability to only print text.

Types of Character Printers

● Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

● Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers
are popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character
printed is in the form of a pattern of dots and the head consists of a Matrix of Pins
of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a character which is why it is
called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

● Inexpensive
● Durable
● Widely Used
● Able to print on multi-part forms
● Low Operating Costs
● Reliable
● Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

● Slow Speed
● Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel

A daisy wheel printer is an impact printer that utilizes a spinning disk, known as the
"daisy wheel," which contains pre-formed characters embossed on its "petals." During
printing, the printer picks the appropriate petal, impacts it against an ink ribbon, and
then onto the paper to generate high-quality text.
The head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower) which is
why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word processing in offices that
require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality. In the 1970s and 1980s, daisy wheel
printers were commonly utilized for word processing before the introduction of laser and inkjet printers.

Advantages

● It produces High-Quality Text so more suitable for professional documents

● More reliable than DMP
● Better quality
● Fonts of character can be easily changed
● Durable so it has a long lifespan
● Each character is pre-formed which shows its consistent print quality

Disadvantages

● Slower than DMP

● Limited to Text
● Noisy
● More expensive than DMP
● Changes in fonts or styles need physical changes on the daisy wheel

Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time. Line printers are
specialised impact printers which are specifically designed to get high-speed,
high-volume printing, primarily for text. These are still useful in certain
applications where speed and durability are critical. Their capacity to print a
complete line of text at once distinguishes them from other impact printers,
making them excellent for applications requiring quick and consistent document creation.

Types of Line Printer

● Drum Printer
● Chain Printer

Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called a drum printer. The surface of the drum is divided into
several tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, the drum
will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track. Different character sets available in the
market are 48 character sets, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers
are fast and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Advantages

● Very high speed

● Low cost
● Durable so they can run a long life
● Able to handle large print volumes
● Provides good printing quality

Disadvantages

● Very expensive
● Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer
A chain printer is a high-speed line printer with a revolving chain mechanism that prints characters on
paper. Chain printers were widely used in large data centres and business settings where high-volume
printing was required. They are well-known for their ability to handle huge print jobs quickly and efficiently.
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used; hence it is called a Chain Printer. A standard character set
may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

● Character fonts can easily be changed

● Able to print hundreds to thousands of lines per minute
● Durable
● Different languages can be used with the same printer
● Cost-effective for printing large quantities of text.

Disadvantages

● Noisy
● Limited Graphics
● Limited with fixed fonts and styles

Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete page at
a time, thus they are also called Page Printers.

These printers are of two types −

● Laser Printers
● Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

● Faster than impact printers

● They are not noisy
● High quality
● Supports many fonts and different character sizes

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots
needed to form the characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages

● Very high speed

● Very high-quality output
● Good graphics quality
● Supports many fonts and different character sizes

Disadvantages

● Expensive
● Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology.
They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce
high-quality output with presentable features.They make less noise because no
hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes available. Color printing is also possible.
Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages

● High-quality printing
● More reliable

Disadvantages

● Expensive as the cost per page is high

● Slow as compared to laser printer

Speakers

Speakers are standard output devices that are used to hear sound clearly from a measurable distance.
These are connected to the computer through sound connectors directly while others can be linked to any
sound system. The primary purpose of speakers is to deliver audio output and enable users to listen to the
resulting sound.

Components of a Speakers

Some of the key components of speakers are as follows −

● Magnet − It is an essential component fixed to speakers to create a

magnetic field.
● Diaphragm (Cone) − It is made with paper, plastic and metal; it is used to create sound waves.
● Voice Coil − The diaphragm is connected to a voice coil of wire, which is placed in the magnetic field
of the magnet.
● Suspension − This contains the spider and the surround. The spider keeps the voice coil centred in
the magnetic gap and the surround links the diaphragm to the speaker frame and allows it to move
freely.

How does the speaker work?

Speakers are electromagnetic waves that transform electromagnetic waves into sound waves. The
computer supplies audio input to the speakers. This input may be analogue or digital. The voice coil
generates an alternating magnetic field when the audio signal passes through it. This magnetic field then
interacts with the stable magnetic field of the permanent magnet. Analogue speakers merely amplify
electromagnetic signals to generate sound waves. Sound waves are analogue signals. Thus, digital speakers
must convert the digital input to an analogue signal before producing a sound wave that can be
transmitted as an output.

A speaker uses vocal commands to control a software programme. A computer speaker is hardware that
connects to a computer system and produces sound. The computer's sound card contains the signal
utilised to generate sound from a computer speaker.

Types of speakers

Some common types of speakers are as follows −

● Electrostatic speaker − An electrostatic speaker contains an electrically

charged diaphragm which is positioned between two conductive plates.
The electrical signal causes the diaphragm to move, which generates
sound.
● Piezoelectric Speakers − These speakers use materials that change their shape when an electric
field is applied and then create sound waves.
 ● Planar Magnetic Speakers − These speakers are similar to dynamic speakers, except they have a
small, flat diaphragm and a voice coil that moves within a magnetic field.
● Subwoofers − Subwoofers produce very low-frequency sound, ranging from 20 to 200 Hz. The
subwoofer is a speaker that can be oriented in any direction. These are specifically designed to
produce low-frequency sounds (bass). Usually, they are used in Home theatre systems and car audio
systems.
● Dynamic speaker − Dynamic speakers are often equipped with one or more woofer drivers. These
have one or more tweeter drivers and are known for producing low-frequency sound.
● Bluetooth speakers − It’s a wireless speaker which is portable. A Bluetooth speaker produces
high-quality audio.
● Horn Speakers − These speakers produce horns to amplify sound; generally used by drivers.

Headphones

Headphones are small-sized speakers which are specifically designed to fit into the earcups of headphones
or earbuds. These speakers operate on the same principles as larger speakers but are tailored for listening at
close range and for personal audio enjoyment.

Advantages

Some of the key advantages of headphone speakers are as follows −

● Produces better sound quality for personal use

● Users hear ambient sounds
● Relatively inexpensive
● Widely available
● Excellent for reproducing high frequencies
● Compact size
● Lower power requirements

Projector

A projector is an output device powered by light is known as a projector. It effectively displays processed
results generated by a computer device and is used to showcase images on a projection screen. Projectors
can display large amounts of visual content for professional presentations and home entertainment.

Types of projector

Some common types of projectors are as follows −

● Cathode Ray Tube − It is a video projector which employs CRT to produce pictures. A lens is used to
focus and enlarge the output to show on the screen.
● Liquid Crystal Display − LCD projectors use liquid crystals to display images, data, or videos. LCD
projector is extensively used in business seminars, presentations, and meetings. These are more
popular than other projectors as they have superb colour reproduction and lower manufacturing
costs.
● Digital Light Processing − DLP projectors are used for front and back projection. A Three-chip DLP
projector can output over 35 trillion colours, and display visuals more realistic and lifelike than
one-chip models. It is used in companies and classrooms as a front projector and in TV as a rear
projector.

Advantages

Some key advantages of projectors are as follows −

● Effective visual projection − A projector displays visuals effectively on screen which bounds the
audience.
 ● Portability − A user can carry it comfortably.
● Connectivity − It can easily connect in offices, seminar halls, or rooms.
● Applications − It is most widely used in businesses, education, and meetings to showcase their
presentations.
● Entertainment − Most widely used to watch movies and play games.
● Resolution and Brightness − Used for events, advertising, and digital signage

GPS

GPS, which stands for "Global Positioning System," is a radio-based satellite navigation system and is
comprised of a network of different satellites called a constellation. The Global Positioning System (GPS) can
determine a precise position using radio waves. The user transmits a radio signal to the satellites, which
collect data such as time, location, speed, and other variables and transfer it to the computer for processing.
Users can use this information to make decisions.

Advantages of GPS

Some key advantages of GPS are as follows −

● Accuracy − The accuracy of the location data is important, especially for applications such as
aviation and marine navigation. Higher precision is essential in these applications. The accuracy of
the location data is of great importance thus greater precision is essential for uses such as aviation
and marine navigation.
● Display Quality − The screen's resolution and readability are crucial, particularly when using outdoor
devices in bright sunlight.
● Map Coverage and Updates − Maps for various areas and how easy it is to update them.
● Durability − Water, dust, and shock resistance are crucial for GPS devices used outdoors and in
marine environments.
● Additional Features − Features such as planning routes, receiving real-time traffic updates, tracking
fitness, and offering specialized marine and aviation functions.

What is RAM (Random Access Memory)?

RAM is a computer's volatile memory which stores

data temporarily; once power turned off, the data
which is inside the RAM gets erased. It is also known
as primary or temporary memory. RAM stores the
data that is actively being used during the execution
of a program or instructions. During the booting
process of a system, the operating system actively
uses RAM and applications that are necessary to execute a file or a program. It speeds up CPU processing by
providing fast data and instruction access.

RAM is actively used for program or instruction execution. Once we start the computer; system necessary
files, programs and operating system files are loaded into the RAM for the smooth running of the computer.
The more RAM a computer has, the better it can handle multitasking and the faster it can run applications
since data can be accessed more quickly.

How does RAM Work?

RAM consists of a grid of cells, each with a unique address, allowing data to be read or written in any order,
the CPU requests data from RAM, which is delivered at high speed, making it essential for multitasking and
running complex applications.

RAM is the computer's internal memory which stores different types of data and information as per the
requirement. It is also considered as read/write memory. The data access in RAM is random. This means that
we can access any random location in the memory without even knowing the address of the previous
location. Since RAM is a volatile memory hence, a backup is present in most of the systems in the form of an
uninterrupted power supply (UPS). Moreover, the speed and performance of a system are directly
proportional to the size of the RAM.

Characteristics of RAM

Key Characteristics of RAM are described below −

● Multitasking − RAM does multitasking and fast execution of instructions or programs.

● Prevents system crashes − RAM prevents system crashes and slowdowns during intensive tasks.
● High-performance − It provides high performance for the execution of gaming and visual
applications, where large amounts of data must be processed swiftly.
● System Support − RAM can perform write and erase operations.
● Additional RAM − To maintain the system’s speed and performance; additional RAM can be added on.
● Faster data accessing − It facilitates CPU by accessing data quickly to support faster execution. RAM is
faster than SSD.
● Cost − RAM is not costly as compared to SSD.

Types of Random Access Memory

Different types of RAM are categorised in the below image

SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)

Static RAM is a type of RAM that uses flip-flops for primary storage and is volatile. It is a type of semiconductor
memory. Each bit is stored using bistable latching circuitry, making it extremely fast so known as cache
memory. It is commonly used as a CPU cache and is typically located in L2 or L3. It stores data in the latch as
long as the computer is on. SRAM is more expensive and requires more power than DRAM. It serves as cache
memory in a computer system. SRAM requires more transistors than DRAM. It is faster than DRAM because
of the latching mechanism. SRAM employs 6 transistors per data bit while DRAM uses one transistor per bit.

Characteristics of SRAM

Some of the key characteristics of SRAM are as follows −

● SRAM has a memory cell which consists of 6 transistors.

● SRAM consist flip-flop to store data units.
● SRAM is dedicatedly designed for the CPU and works as a cache memory.
● It accesses data in less time; faster than DRAM, and takes very less time to access data.
● Storing a large amount of data on a single chip is not possible, so more chips are needed.
● SRAM is expensive.
● It requires a regular power supply to store data.
● SRAM generates more heat.
● Contents remain as it is until power is ON.
Types of SRAM

SRAM can be further classified into the following types −

● Synchronous − Synchronous SRAM works jointly with a clock signal. It reads and writes in sync with
the clock, making it faster and suitable for high-speed applications.
● Asynchronous − Its working is not dependent on the clock signal; it carries out read-and-write
operations once the addresses and control signals are stable.
● Pseudo SRAM − PSRAM is a type of memory that has features of both DRAM and SRAM. The device
uses a DRAM cell but includes an internal refresh circuit, so presenting itself as SRAM to the external
system.
● Non-Volatile SRAM − nvSRAM integrates a small non-volatile memory with SRAM cells to keep data
even when power is off.

Advantages of SRAM

The advantages of SRAM are as follows −

● SRAM is preferred because it is much faster.

● It does not require being refreshed.
● It delivers faster read and write operations.
● It works as a cache memory in CPUs.
● It is less prone to errors and data corruption caused by the refresh process.
● It is very reliable and therefore is used for cache memory.

Disadvantages of SRAM

Disadvantages of DRAM are as follows −

● It is expensive.
● It has a complex cell structure; so the design and layout of SRAM are more complex.
● Due to its volatile nature, overall data is lost when power goes off.
● It has a low storage capacity as compared to DRAM.
● The design is complex and not easy to build or understand.
● It is not Suitable for Large Memory Applications

Overall, speed and reliability make SRAM highly-priced, particularly for applications such as CPU caches.
However, its higher cost and lower density compared to DRAM restrict its use to smaller, high-performance
memory applications.

DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)

It is another type of RAM used as main memory; it stores data in capacitors for a short period (a few
milliseconds) even when the computer is powered on. Each memory cell is a DRAM chip that contains one
bit of data and is composed of transistors and capacitors. In this memory controller, the data can be read and
then rewritten, constantly updating it. The data is refreshed regularly to ensure its integrity. The DRAM is less
expensive, but it can store significantly more data. In addition, it is slower and requires less power than SRAM.

However, DRAM is less expensive than SRAM, making it suitable for use as the CPU's main memory. It is
slower than SRAM and can link directly to the CPU bus. A DRAM typically ranges from 4GB to 16GB for
laptops and 1GB to 2GB for smaller devices.

Characteristics of DRAM

Some of the key characteristics of DRAM are as follows −

● It works as a main memory for the system.

● It is made up of capacitors that store the data, thus we need to refresh it multiple times.
● It is inexpensive so DRAM is mostly available in Laptops or PCs today.
 ● It requires less space and less power.
● It refreshes every millisecond to maintain data consistency.
● It is more power-efficient than SRAM.
● DRAM can store multiple bits on a single chip.

Types of DRAM

DRAM can be further classified into the following types −

● SDRAM − Synchronous with bus clock; general computing.

● DDR SDRAM − it has higher data transfer rates compared to SDRAM.
● DDR2 SDRAM − It has higher speeds, lower power consumption, and enhanced latency.
● GDDR − It is optimized for graphics processing units (GPUs).
● LPDDR − It is dedicatedly designed for mobile and embedded applications.
● RDRAM − Specifically designed for innovative design for specific high-performance applications.
● EDO DRAM − It allows for faster read cycles by overlapping operations.

Advantages of DRAM

The advantages of DRAM are as follows −

● DRAM has a slower accessing time than SRAM

● Its design is simple, not complex because it consists of only a single transistor.
● It is smaller in size.
● Its cost is low compared to SRAM
● It has high congestion rates.
● It has a large memory space.
● It has a high density that makes it suitable for large memory applications.

Disadvantages of DRAM

Disadvantages of DRAM are as follows −

● It is volatile so continuous refreshing requires keeping data consistent.

● Its manufacturing process is complex.
● It is slower than SRAM.
● It has higher latency compared to SRAM.

Differences between Dynamic RAM (D-RAM) and Static RAM (S-RAM):

Feature Dynamic RAM (D-RAM) Static RAM (S-RAM)

Data Storage Stores each bit in a capacitor that needs Stores each bit using bistable flip-flop
Mechanism refreshing. circuits.
Volatile; loses data when power is off and Volatile; retains data as long as power
Volatility requires periodic refreshing. is supplied without refreshing.
Faster access times, ideal for cache
Speed Slower access times due to refresh cycles. memory.
Higher density; can store more bits in a smaller Lower density; fewer bits fit in the
Density area. same area.
Less expensive to manufacture; cost-effective for More expensive per bit due to complex
Cost large memory applications. circuitry.
Primarily used as main memory in computers Commonly used in CPU cache and
Common Uses and devices. other high-speed applications.
Power Consumes more power due to refresh Generally consumes less power per
Consumption requirements. operation.
Physical Consists of a grid of memory cells (capacitors Composed of a network of flip-flops for
Structure and transistors). stable data storage.
Development More complex design and
Complexity Simpler design and development process. manufacturing process.

What is Cache Memory?

Memory that is smaller and faster than RAM is called cache memory. It is a volatile memory fixed closer to
the CPU to provide high-speed data access to the processor and stores frequently used computer
programs, applications and data. Generally a cache memory fixes between processor and Random Access
Memory.

What does Cache Memory Look Alike?

Cache memory's physical structure can be understood using the below images.

It saves data and instructions that are used a

lot so that processing goes faster.

Why Cache Memory is Important?

Cache memory is much faster than main memory, thus the CPU can access data quickly used in execution;
cache memory helps to get full utilisation of the CPU. It generally fixes closer to the CPU to communicate
with CPU and RAM. Cache memory increases the system's overall performance and efficiency. It reduces
the latency that the CPU experiences when retrieving data from main memory.

How does Cache Memory Work?

The data in a cache is typically stored in hardware with immediate access, like RAM. When a user retrieves
data, it checks the caching first. If the data is located in the cache, it is called a cache hit. The proportion of
attempts that provide a cache hit is known as the cache hit rate or ratio. Data that is not located in the
cache is taken from the main memory and put into the cache. This is known as a cache miss. How this is
accomplished and what information is expelled from the cache to create space for new data is determined
by the caching algorithms, cache mechanisms, and system regulations.

Different caching mechanisms govern the operation of the cache.

● Cache Hierarchy − Computers normally have L1, L2, and L3 caches are the several layers of cache
memory. The L1 cache is the smallest and fastest cache, located closest to the CPU; L2 and L3 caches
are larger and slower. Modern processors contain L1, L2, and L3 caches that grow in capacity and
latency farther from the CPU cores. Parallel access is achieved by splitting the L1 cache into
instruction and data caches.
● Cache Organization − Each block or line of cache memory contains a small bit of data copied from
the main memory. The CPU accesses cache memory in fixed-size blocks, not bytes.
● Cache Coherency − Cache coherency ensures cached data matches the main memory data. Cache
coherence techniques update other cores' caches when one core writes to a memory location in a
multi-core processor.
 ● Cache Replacement Policies − A cache replacement policy decides which block to evict when the
cache is full and a new block is needed. LRU, FIFO, and Random Replacement are common policies.
● Cache Access − The CPU checks the cache before reading or writing data. When data is cached, the
CPU can quickly retrieve it. If data is not in the cache (cache miss), the CPU must fetch it from the
main memory, which may delay it.
● Cache Management − Optimization of cache utilization maximizes hit rates and minimizes miss
penalties. Prefetching, where the processor predicts memory accesses and loads data into the
cache, improves cache performance.

Cache memory buffers frequently access data between the CPU and main memory to speed up processing
and increase system performance. Modern computer systems require effective management and structure
for optimal performance.

Types of Cache Memory

Different types of cache memory, like L1, L2, and L3 cache, have different speeds and amounts of space.

The Levels of Cache Memory: L1, L2, and L3

CPU Cache memory is categorised into three "levels": L1, L2, and L3.

L1 Cache

Level 1 cache is a computer's fastest memory. The CPU's most frequently accessed data resides in the L1
cache. CPU determines L1 cache size. Some high-end consumer CPUs, such as the Intel i9-9980XE, have a
1MB L1 cache, but they are expensive and rare. Server chipsets like Intel's Xeon have 1-2MB L1 memory cache.
Before buying, examine the CPU specs to ascertain the L1 cache size. There is no "standard" amount.

The L1 cache normally has two sections: the instruction cache, which stores CPU operation information, and
the data cache, which stores operation data.

L2 Cache

Level 2 cache is larger but slower than L1. Modern L2 memory caches are gigabytes, not kilobytes. AMD's
top-rated Ryzen 5 5600X has 384KB L1 and 3MB L2 caches and 32MB L3 cache. The L2 cache size depends
on the CPU but is usually 256KB to 32MB. Nowadays, most CPUs have more than 256KB L2 cache, which is
small. Some of the most powerful current CPUs have L2 memory caches exceeding 8MB. In terms of speed,
the L2 cache is slower than the L1 cache but still faster than the system RAM. L2 caches are 25 times faster
than RAM, while L1 caches are 100 times faster.

L3 Cache
Level 3 cache. The L3 memory cache was originally on the motherboard. This was long ago when most
CPUs were single-core. The L3 cache on top-end consumer CPUs can reach 32MB, while AMD's
groundbreaking Ryzen 7 5800X3D CPUs have 96MB. CPU L3 caches in some servers can reach 128MB.

The largest and slowest cache memory unit is L3. Modern CPUs have an on-chip L3 cache. The chip's L1 and
L2 caches serve each core, while the L3 cache is more like a memory pool for the whole chip. The following
images illustrate the CPU memory cache levels for a 2012 Intel Core i5-3570K CPU and a 2020 AMD Ryzen
5800X CPU. The second image's bottom right corner contains CPU cache data.

Applications of Cache Memory

The primary applications of Cache Memory are as follows −

● Cache stores temporary files; so it is most widely used in the CPU.

● Different programs and software use their cache.
● A web browser has a cache that retains information.
● Caches are utilised by the operating system.
● It stores frequently accessed data which makes data access fast if a user re-accesses it.

Advantages of Cache Memory

Some key advantages of cache memory are as follows −

● Faster Access − It fixes closer to CPU so access data very fast.

● Reducing Memory Latency − It takes very little time to retrieve data from memory which shows it
reduces memory latency.
● Increasing effective CPU utilization − It supports full CPU utilisation by fast data accessing and
giving it to the CPU so that the execution of instructions or programs is done on time.
● Reduced Power Consumption − Cache memory consumes much less power than other types of
storage.
● Scalability − Cache memory can grow with a system's needs.

Overall, a cache memory increases throughput, improves reliability and increases scalability.

Units of Data Storage

Conversion to
Unit Abbreviation Definition Bytes Examples of Use
The smallest unit of data in a
computer, representing a binary Network speeds (e.g.,
Bit b value of 0 or 1. 1 bit = 0.125 bytes 100 Mbps)
A group of 8 bits, representing a
single character of data (like a File sizes, character
Byte B letter or number). 1 byte = 8 bits encoding
Approximately 1,000 bytes
(specifically, 1,024 bytes in binary Small text files,
Kilobyte KB computing). 1 KB = 1,024 bytes image thumbnails
Approximately 1,000 KB Music files,
(specifically, 1,024 KB in binary medium-sized
Megabyte MB computing). 1 MB = 1,024 KB images
Approximately 1,000 MB
(specifically, 1,024 MB in binary Video files, software
Gigabyte GB computing). 1 GB = 1,024 MB applications
Approximately 1,000 GB Hard drives, large
Terabyte TB (specifically, 1,024 GB in binary 1 TB = 1,024 GB databases
 computing).
Approximately 1,000 TB Data centers,
(specifically, 1,024 TB in binary extensive cloud
Petabyte PB computing). 1 PB = 1,024 TB storage

What is ROM?

ROM is a non-volatile memory that stores data permanently. Advanced ROM data can be erased and
rewritten. The information in ROM can only be accessed, making it perfect for use in computers as it enables
quick access to data without the need for constant data rewriting. Important data, like BIOS settings and
operating system instructions, are stored in these memories, which are crucial for the proper functioning of
your computer. Without them, your computer would essentially be "brain dead," so they must continue to
work properly at all times!

ROM is an efficient storage method requiring minimal effort and maintenance, capable of holding
instructions and various types of data.

Characteristics of Read Only Memory (ROM)

The primary characteristics of ROM are as follows −

● ROM is Non-volatile in nature.

● Advanced ROM can be rewritten.
● Data or information stored on ROM can be read-only.
● ROM holds its data even when power is turned off.
● The read-only characteristic ensures data stability and integrity.
● ROM utilization occurs during the computer's boot-up procedure.

How does Read Only Memory (ROM) Work?

ROM functions by using memory cells, which are composed of transistors

arranged in series to enable the flow of electrical current when powered. This current passing through the
transistors generates a magnetic field that retains the data in the memory cell until it is erased by another
signal passing through the transistor. The information stored in these cells cannot be altered or deleted
unless directed by an external entity such as a computer processor or hard drive controller.

Overall, inside the computer, a small but durable battery powers the ROM. Its two essential components are
the decoder and OR logic gates. Binary input from the ROM is processed by the decoder, which then
produces the decimal equivalent as output. The decimal output of the decoder is used as the input for the
OR gates in the ROM.

ROM is akin to an array of disks. The system can be activated and deactivated using a grid of rows and
columns. Each element of the array is assigned to a specific memory element on the ROM. A diode is used to
connect the relevant components. When a request is sent, the address provided is used to locate the specific
memory location. The value extracted from the ROM chip must match the value in the array's selected
element.

Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Based on its characteristics and uses, ROM is broadly classified into four different types −

1. MROM (Masked Read-Only Memory)

MROM stands for Masked Read-Only Memory. This memory device is no longer used nowadays due to
obsolescence. Manufacturers are using this memory to store software and information during the
manufacturing process. Therefore, it is impossible to alter, reprogram, or erase this type of pre-programmed
chip later.

Applications of MROM

It is most widely used in Network Operating Systems and Server Operating Systems.

2. PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)

PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory. Generally, it’s a blank memory chip. It can be
programmed during manufacturing and cannot be changed or erased. A PROM programmer or PROM
burner is used to write information to a PROM. The process of programming a PROM chip is commonly
known as "PROM Burning." Once programmed, the chip's content cannot be changed. As a result, it is also
known as a one-time programmable device.

Applications of PROM

It is most widely used in Computer Bios, TV Remote, Video game consoles and nowadays a day used in
Mobile Phones.

3. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)

EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. It can be programmed and later erased by
exposing it to strong ultraviolet light. After being erased, the EPROM can be reprogrammed. EPROM is a type
of read-only memory chip that may erase previously programmed data. High voltage can be used to
program the programmable read-only memory to write data, which is then retained until exposed to
ultraviolet light for 10 minutes or more.

Applications of EPROM

It is most widely used in Video cards, Memory sticks, BIOS chips, and Modem.

4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)

EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. It is an advanced type of ROM
that can be erased and reprogrammed electrically. This operation can be repeated indefinitely, and the
computer system can do it while running. The EEPROM allows users to program and erase any desired spot.
It is erased byte by byte rather than the full chip. As a result, reprogramming is flexible and takes less time to
complete the process.

Applications of EEPROM

It is most widely used in Bios Chip and Microcontrollers for Smart Cards.

5. Flash Memory

It is a type of EEPROM that can be erased and reprogrammed in blocks rather than one byte at a time which
allows for faster and more efficient operations. It is widely employed as storage in modern devices such as
USB drives, memory cards, and SSDs. A modern variant of EEPROM is flash memory. With its newer designs
and high endurance, it may be erased and rewritten faster than typical EEPROMs.

Applications of Flash Memory

It is most widely used in storage devices like USB drives, memory cards, and SSDs.

Advantages of Using (Read Only Memory) ROM

The primary advantages of ROM are as follows −

 ● It is non-volatile and less expensive than RAM.
● Its circuit design is simple as compared to RAM.
● No need to refresh it.
● ROM provides fast data access.
● It is reliable.
● Data remains intact and uncorrupted.
● It maintains data integrity and security.

Applications of Read Only Memory (ROM)

There are various applications of ROM. Some of those applications are as follows −

● Supports the Booting Process − It supports the booting process of the computer and loads the
operating system.
● Input/output (I/O) Tasks − ROM performs large I/O tasks.
● Stores Data − ROM stores data and updates firmware software.
● Embedded Systems − ROMs are most widely used in microwaves, washing machines, and related
appliances where firmware controls operations.
● Consumer Electronics − It is used in modern smartphones for storing bootloaders and firmware.
● Computer BIOS − It provides support for basic Input / Output System (BIOS) in PCs.

ROM is an essential memory device in different electronic systems due to its impact use like reliability,
security, and cost-effectiveness.

RAM Vs. ROM Vs. Cache

Feature RAM ROM Cache

Read-only Memory; Smaller, high-speed volatile
non-volatile storage that memory located close to or
Random Access Memory; holds firmware and on the CPU, storing
temporary storage used by essential system frequently accessed data
Definition the CPU for processing tasks instructions and instructions
More expensive than both
RAM and ROM due to high
Cost More expensive than ROM Less expensive than RAM speed and low latency
Highest speed among the
three, optimized for fast
Speed High speed Low speed data access
Permanent storage for Temporary storage for
Temporary storage for data essential system data and frequently accessed data to
Storage Type and programs currently in use firmware reduce access times
Storage Very low compared to both
Capacity High compared to ROM Low compared to RAM RAM and ROM
Performs Read and Write
Can perform Read, Write, Performs only Read operations but with very
Operations Modify, and Delete operations operations limited storage capacity
Used to store data and Holds system firmware, Stores copies of frequently
instructions for active boot instructions, and other accessed data to speed up
Function processes and tasks read-only data access times for the CPU
Very fast access, designed
Fast access, but slower than to reduce data retrieval
Performance Cache Slow access time for the CPU
Primarily used as main Used in firmware, BIOS, and Commonly used in CPU
Usage memory in computers and microcontrollers caches (L1, L2, L3) and other
 mobile devices high-speed data access
scenarios
Volatile; loses all data when Non-volatile; retains data Volatile; loses all data when
Volatility power is turned off when power is off power is off