GRAPHIC REVIEWER

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
It's the science of collecting, exploring, and presenting large amounts
of data to discover underlying patterns and trends.

Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals with the statistical

instrumentation of collecting, classifying, presenting, analyzing,
interpreting, and drawing conclusions from quantitative data.
A
20%
DIVISION OF STATISTICS C
30%
Descriptive Statistics
Inferencial Statistics

B
DATA 50%
It refers to the facts and statistics collected together for reference
or analysis.
This information may be in the form of text documents, images,
audio clips, software programs, or other types of data.

TYPES OF DATA

Quantitative Data
It refers to the observations described or summarized
numerically. It supports formal tests, comparisons, and
conclusions.
Nominal: Binary, Non-Binary, Single & Multi-nominal
Ordinal: Binary, Non-Binary, Single & Multi-nominal
Interval: Discrete & Continuous
Ratio: Discrete & Continuous
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
A B C D

Qualitative Data
It refers to the observations described or summarized non-
numerically. It supports any kind of observation.
Transcript
Field Notes
Artifacts

DATA METHOD TECHNIQUES

Naturalistic Observation - Refers to observing people in their
natural context
Participant Observation the researcher not only observes the -
research participants, but also actively engages in the activities of
the research participants.
Interview - meeting of two people face-to-face, especially for
consultation.
Focus Group - a group of people are selected and asked about
their opinion or perceptions about a particular topic.
Think-Aloud - asks students to say out loud what they are thinking
about in a certain task.
Survey - a set of questions people are asked to gather information
or find out their opinions, or the information gathered by asking
many people the same questions
 GRAPHIC REVIEWER
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

A frequency distribution is an organized tabulation of the number of

individuals. It can be structured either as a table or as a graph, but in
either case, the distribution presents the same two elements:

1. The set of categories that make up the original X f

measurement scale.
2. A record of the frequency, or number of individuals 10 2

in each category.
9 1

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION GRAPH

8 3

A frequency distribution graph is basically a picture

7 1
of the information available in a frequency
distribution table.
6 2

INTERVAL OR RATIO DATA:

6 35

5 30

25
4

20
3

15
2
10

1
5

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Histogram Polygon

NOMINAL OR ORDINAL DATA:

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

Bar Graph

SHAPES OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

RANK OR PERCENTILE
The rank or percentile rank of a particular score is defined as the percentage
of individuals in the distribution with scores equal to or less than the particular
value.

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY
The cumulative frequency (c.f) is defined as the total of frequencies, where the
frequency of the first class interval is added to the frequency of the second
class interval and then the sum is added to the frequency of the third class
interval and so on.
 GRAPHIC REVIEWER
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIATION

MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Mean: average of data values.

𝒙 or 𝝁 denotes mean; 𝚺
denotes summation notation;
𝚺𝒙 denotes the sum of data
values; n or N denotes the
number of values in a sample

Median: “middle value” or the average of “middle two values”

in a data set when the numbers are arranged in an order.

={2,3,4,4,4,7,8,9,9,10,11}

MEDIAN

Mode: value that occurs with greatest frequency.

={2,3,4,4,4,7,8,9,9,10,11}

MODE = 4

MEASURE OF VARIATION

Standard deviation: measure of how much data values are

deviated away from mean.

Variance: square of the standard deviation.

Range: difference between the maximum value and the minimum

value in a data set,

RANGE = MAXIMUM VALUE – MINIMUM VALUE

 GRAPHIC REVIEWER
HYPOTHESIS TESTING

HYPOTHESIS TESTING
refers to the making an assumption, called hypothesis,
about a population parameter

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

Null Hypothesis, Ho - states that the population parameter

(mean, proportion) is equal to some value.

Alternative Hypothesis Ha - is opposing statement which is

accepted if sample data do not provide sufficient evidence to
support the null hypothesis.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING IF N ≥30

HYPOTHESIS TESTING IF N < 30

LINEAR CORRELATION
is a measure of the degree to which two variables vary together,
or a measure of the intensity of the association between two
variables

r can range from -1 to 1, and is independent of units of

measurement
 GRAPHIC REVIEWER
LINEAR REGRESSION

LINEAR REGRESSION
Is a statistical method used to model and analyze the
relationship between a dependent variable (the outcome
you're trying to predict or explain) and one or more
independent variables (the predictors or factors that may
influence the outcome).

Y is the dependent variable (response), X is the independent

variable (predictor), β0 is the intercept of the regression line
(the value of Y when X=0), β1 is the slope of the regression line
(the rate at which Y changes with respect to X), ϵ is the error
term (representing the difference between the observed values
and the predicted values of Y).

DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

Independent Variable (X): Influences the outcome but is not

influenced by other variables.
Dependent Variable (Y): Changes in response to the
independent variable

R-SQUARED

is a statistical measure that evaluates the goodness of fit of a

linear regression model. It represents the proportion of the
variance in the dependent variable (y) that is predictable from
the independent variable(s) (x)

P-Values: A small p-value (<0.05) indicates that the relationship

is statistically significant.

Confidence Intervals: A range of values that likely contains the

true population parameter

Linearity: A direct, proportional relationship between X and Y.

Independence: Data points must be independent of each other.

Homoscedasticity: Constant variance of residuals across all

levels of X.

Normality: Residuals should follow a normal distribution.

Violating these assumptions can impact the model's validity.

Residuals: The difference between the observed and predicted

values of Y. Residual Plots: Used to assess whether the
assumptions of linearity, independence, and homoscedasticity
hold.

Model Selection: Methods like stepwise regression and cross-

validation help in selecting the best model.

Validation: It's important to validate the model using test data

to ensure its reliability.
 ANOVA
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

PURPOSE

ANOVA is a statistical method used to compare means across two or

more groups to determine if there are significant differences among
them. It tests the null hypothesis that all group means are equal
against the alternative hypothesis that at least one group mean
differs. ANOVA helps identify whether observed differences in
sample means are likely due to actual differences in the population
or random variation.

KEY TERMS
Between-Group Variance - This measures the variability in sample
means across groups. It reflects the differences in group means
due to the effect of the independent variable (or treatment
effect).
Within-Group Variance - This measures the variability within each
group. It reflects the differences due to random error or individual
differences within the groups.
F-Statistic - The F-statistic is the ratio of between-group variance
to within-group variance. A larger F-value suggests a greater
likelihood that the group means differ significantly.

STEPS INVOLVING ANOVA

1.Formulate Hypotheses:
Null Hypothesis (Ho) All group means are equal (μ1=μ2=μ3=…).
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): At least one group mean is different.

2.Determine the Level of Significance (α): Choose a significance

level (e.g., α=0.05\alpha = 0.05α=0.05) to evaluate the F-
statistic.

3.Calculate Variance Components:

Compute the Total Sum of Squares (SST): Measures the total
variability in the data.
Compute the Between-Group Sum of Squares (SSB): Measures
variability due to differences between group means.
Compute the Within-Group Sum of Squares (SSW): Measures
variability within each group.

4.Calculate the Degrees of Freedom:

Between-groups:
Within-groups:
 ANOVA
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

5.Compute the Mean Squares:

Between-group mean square:

Within-group mean square:

6.Compute the F-Statistic:

7.Compare F-Statistic to Critical Value or P-Value:

Compare the calculated F-statistic to the critical value from the
F-distribution table at the chosen α level and degrees of
freedom.
Alternatively, calculate the p-value and compare it to α.

8.Interpret the Results:

If F > critical value or p < α, reject the null hypothesis (Ho​).
Otherwise, fail to reject Ho.

9.Post-Hoc Analysis (if needed): If the null hypothesis is rejected,

conduct post-hoc tests (e.g., Tukey's HSD) to identify which specific
group means differ.