SMA 2203: Number Theory

Prerequisite
SMA 2100: Discrete Mathematics

Purpose
To enable the student to understand the concepts of the ring of integers and related
theorems.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course, the student should be able to:

1. Explain concepts of divisibility theory and Euclid’s algorithm.

2. Explain concepts of congruence.

3. Use Fermat’s theorems in determining the primitive roots and indices.

Course Description
• Basic types of numbers.

• The ring of integers: Divisibility with remainder, prime numbers, their distribution,
and Euclid’s theorem on the existence of infinitely many primes.

• Euclid’s algorithm for finding greatest common divisors, unique factorization, linear
Diophantine equations.

• Congruence: residue classes and integers (mod n), Wilson’s and Fermat’s theorems,
Euler’s phi-function, and Euler’s theorem. Primitive roots and indices.

• Pythagorean triples: Fermat’s last theorem for fourth powers.

• Quadratic congruences and residues: Chinese Remainder Theorem, Euler’s crite-

rion. Legendre symbol and the reciprocity law.

• Quadratic fields: arithmetic, norm and trace. Units and Pell’s equation.

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Teaching Methodology
Lectures, tutorials, and group discussions.

Instruction Materials/Equipment
1. Liquid crystal displays

2. Whiteboards/blackboards

3. Flipcharts

Assessment
• Continuous Assessment Tests: 30%

• Examination: 70%

Course Textbooks
1. James Pommersheim, Tim Marks, and Erica Flapan (2010), Number Theory: A
Lively Introduction with Proofs, Applications, and Stories, Wiley.

2. Underwood Dudley (2008), Elementary Number Theory (2nd Edition), Dover Pub-
lications.

3. Josephine M. Jones (2009), Elementary Number Theory, Springer Undergraduate

Mathematics Series.

Course Journals
1. JP Journal of Algebra and Number Theory and its Applications, Pushpa Publishing
House, ISSN: 0972-5555.

2. Journal for Algebra and Number Theory Academia, Mili Publications, ISSN: 0976-
8475.

3. Pioneer Journal of Algebra, Number Theory and its Applications, Pioneer Scientific
Publisher, ISSN: 2231-1831.

Reference Textbooks
1. G. H. Hardy, E. M. Wright, Wiles, and R. Heath-Brown (2008), An Introduction to
the Theory of Numbers (6th Edition), Oxford University Press.

2. Kenneth Ireland and Michael Rosen (2010), A Classical Introduction to Modern

Number Theory (Graduate Texts in Mathematics), Springer.

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 3. Alan Baker (2012), A Comprehensive Course in Number Theory, Cambridge Uni-
versity Press.

Reference Journals
1. Algebra & Number Theory, Mathematical Sciences Publishers, ISSN: 1937-0652.

2. JP Journal of Algebra and Number Theory and its Applications, Pushpa Publishing
House, ISSN: 0972-5555.

3. Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics Journal, Wiley Periodicals,

INC., ISSN: 1097-0312.

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1 Basic Types of Numbers
1.1 Definition and Classification
• Natural Numbers (N): {1, 2, 3, . . . }

• Integers (Z): {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . }

• Rational Numbers (Q): Numbers that can be expressed as ab , where a, b ∈ Z and

b ̸= 0.
√
• Irrational Numbers: Numbers that cannot be written as ab . Examples: π, e, 2.

• Real Numbers (R): The union of rational and irrational numbers.

• Prime Numbers: Natural numbers greater than 1 whose only divisors are 1 and
themselves.

1.2 Historical Development

The study of numbers dates back to ancient Greece, where the Pythagoreans categorized
numbers based on their properties. Euclid, in his book Elements, provided the first
rigorous treatment of primes and divisibility.

2 The Ring of Integers

2.1 Divisibility and Remainder
Let a, b ∈ Z with b ̸= 0. We say that b divides a (denoted b | a) if there exists an integer
k such that a = bk.
[Division Algorithm] Given any two integers a and b with b > 0, there exist unique
integers q and r such that

a = bq + r, where 0 ≤ r < b. (1)

Proof. The proof follows from the well-ordering principle and construction of q and r via
successive subtraction.

2.2 Euclid’s Theorem on Infinitely Many Primes

[Euclid] There exist infinitely many prime numbers.
Proof. Suppose there are finitely many primes p1 , p2 , . . . , pn . Consider N = p1 p2 . . . pn +1.
This number is not divisible by any pi , contradicting our assumption.

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2.3 Euclid’s Algorithm and GCD
[Euclidean Algorithm] The greatest common divisor (gcd) of two integers can be com-
puted using the recurrence:

gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, a mod b), where gcd(a, 0) = a. (2)

[1] Find gcd(252, 105) using the Euclidean Algorithm:

252 = 105 × 2 + 42,

105 = 42 × 2 + 21,
42 = 21 × 2 + 0.

Hence, gcd(252, 105) = 21.

[2] Find gcd(270, 192) using the Euclidean Algorithm:

270 = 192 × 1 + 78,

192 = 78 × 2 + 36,
78 = 36 × 2 + 6,
36 = 6 × 6 + 0.

Hence, gcd(270, 192) = 6.

[3] Find gcd(414, 662) using the Euclidean Algorithm:

662 = 414 × 1 + 248,

414 = 248 × 1 + 166,
248 = 166 × 1 + 82,
166 = 82 × 2 + 2,
82 = 2 × 41 + 0.

Hence, gcd(414, 662) = 2.

2.4 Congruences and Residue Classes

Let a, b ∈ Z and n ∈ N. We say that a is congruent to b modulo n
(denoted a ≡ b (mod n)) if n | (a − b).
[Fermat’s Theorem] If p is a prime and a is an integer not divisible by p, then

ap−1 ≡ 1 (mod p). (3)

Proof. The proof follows from the properties of modular arithmetic and Lagrange’s the-
orem applied to the multiplicative group of integers modulo p.
article amsmath, amssymb

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2.4.1 Examples of Fermat’s Theorem
Find 36 mod 7 using Fermat’s theorem.
Solution: Since 7 is a prime, Fermat’s theorem states that for any integer a not
divisible by 7:
a7−1 ≡ 1 mod 7
Applying this to a = 3:
36 ≡ 1 mod 7.
Find 510 mod 11.
Solution: Since 11 is prime, Fermat’s theorem states:

511−1 = 510 ≡ 1 mod 11.

Thus, 510 ≡ 1 mod 11.

Find 716 mod 17.
Solution: Since 17 is a prime, Fermat’s theorem states:

717−1 = 716 ≡ 1 mod 17.

Thus, 716 ≡ 1 mod 17.

3 Pythagorean Triples and Fermat’s Last Theorem

A Pythagorean triple consists of three positive integers (a, b, c) satisfying

a2 + b 2 = c 2 . (4)

[Fermat’s Last Theorem] There are no nontrivial integer solutions for the equation

an + b n = c n , n > 2. (5)

Examples of Pythagorean Triples

The set (3, 4, 5) forms a Pythagorean triple since:

32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25 = 52 .

The set (5, 12, 13) forms a Pythagorean triple since:

52 + 122 = 25 + 144 = 169 = 132 .

The set (8, 15, 17) forms a Pythagorean triple since:

82 + 152 = 64 + 225 = 289 = 172 .

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Illustrating Fermat’s Last Theorem
Fermat’s Last Theorem states that there are no nontrivial integer solutions for:

an + b n = c n , for n > 2.

Consider n = 3 and small values: Suppose 33 + 43 = c3 , then:

27 + 64 = 91,

but 91 is not a perfect cube, proving that no integer c satisfies the equation.
Consider n = 4: Suppose 54 + 64 = c4 , then:

625 + 1296 = 1921,

which is not a perfect fourth power.

Fermat’s Last Theorem was proven by Andrew Wiles in 1994 using advanced number
theory techniques, confirming that no nontrivial integer solutions exist for an + bn = cn
when n > 2.

4 Quadratic Residues and Reciprocity

[Chinese Remainder Theorem] Let n1 , n2 , . . . , nk be pairwise coprime integers. Then for
any integers a1 , a2 , . . . , ak , there exists a unique solution x modulo N = n1 n2 . . . nk to the
system:

x ≡ a1 (mod n1 ),
x ≡ a2 (mod n2 ),
..
.
x ≡ ak (mod nk ).

4.0.1 Examples of the Chinese Remainder Theorem

Find an integer x that satisfies the system:

x≡2 (mod 3)

x≡3 (mod 4)
x≡1 (mod 5)
Solution: The moduli 3, 4, and 5 are pairwise coprime, so we apply the Chinese
Remainder Theorem.

1. Solve the first two congruences:

• The numbers satisfying x ≡ 2 mod 3 are: x = 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, . . ..

• Checking x ≡ 3 mod 4, we find x = 11 satisfies both.

2. Solve x ≡ 11 (mod 12) (since lcm(3, 4) = 12) and x ≡ 1 (mod 5):

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 • The numbers satisfying x ≡ 11 (mod 12) are x = 11, 23, 35, 47, . . ..
• Checking modulo 5, we find x = 47 satisfies all conditions.

Final Answer: x ≡ 47 mod 60.

Find x that satisfies:
x≡1 (mod 5)
x≡2 (mod 7)
Solution:
• The numbers satisfying x ≡ 1 (mod 5) are x = 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, 26, . . ..
• Checking for x ≡ 2 (mod 7), we find x = 16 works.
Final Answer: x ≡ 16 mod 35.
Find x that satisfies:
x≡3 (mod 7)
x≡4 (mod 9)
Solution:
• The numbers satisfying x ≡ 3 (mod 7) are x = 3, 10, 17, 24, 31, 38, . . ..
• Checking for x ≡ 4 (mod 9), we find x = 31 works.
Final Answer: x ≡ 31 mod 63.

5 Quadratic Fields and Pell’s Equation

√ √
The quadratic field Q( d) consists of numbers of the form a + b d, where a, b ∈ Q.
[Pell’s Equation] The equation x2 − Dy 2 = 1 has infinitely many integer solutions
when D is a positive non-square integer.

6 Introduction to the Ring of Integers and Divisibil-

ity
The set of integers, denoted by Z, forms a fundamental mathematical structure known
as a ring. This structure allows us to study properties such as divisibility, factorization,
and the behavior of prime numbers.

6.1 Definition and Properties of Z

A ring is an algebraic structure where:
• Addition is associative, commutative, and has an identity element (0).
• Multiplication is associative and distributes over addition.
• Every element has an additive inverse.
These properties allow the systematic study of divisibility and factorization in Z.

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6.2 Divisibility and the Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)
Let a, b ∈ Z with b ̸= 0. We say that b divides a (denoted b | a) if there exists an integer
k such that a = bk.
[Division Algorithm] Given any two integers a and b with b > 0, there exist unique
integers q (quotient) and r (remainder) such that:
a = bq + r, where 0 ≤ r < b. (6)
Let a = 35 and b = 6. Then:
35 = 6 × 5 + 5, q = 5, r = 5.

6.3 Euclidean Algorithm for Computing GCD

The greatest common divisor (gcd) of two integers can be computed using the recurrence:
gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, a mod b), where gcd(a, 0) = a. (7)
Find gcd(252, 105) using the Euclidean Algorithm:
252 = 105 × 2 + 42,
105 = 42 × 2 + 21,
42 = 21 × 2 + 0.
Hence, gcd(252, 105) = 21.

7 Prime Numbers and Their Distribution

7.1 Definition and Examples
A prime number is an integer p > 1 whose only positive divisors are 1 and itself.
Examples of prime numbers: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, . . .

7.2 Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

[Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic] Every integer greater than 1 can be expressed
uniquely as a product of primes, up to the order of the factors.
The number 84 can be factored as:
84 = 22 · 3 · 7.

7.3 Distribution of Primes and the Prime Number Theorem

[Prime Number Theorem] As x becomes large, the number of primes π(x) is approximately
given by:
x
π(x) ∼ . (8)
ln x
Estimating π(1000):
1000 1000
≈ ≈ 144.
ln 1000 6.91
The actual count of primes below 1000 is 168.

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 [width=0.6]primed istribution.png

Figure 1: Graph of π(x) vs. x/ ln x.

8 Euclid’s Theorem on Infinitely Many Primes

[Euclid] There exist infinitely many prime numbers.
Proof. Assume there are finitely many primes: p1 , p2 , . . . , pn . Consider:

N = p1 p2 · · · pn + 1.

N is either prime or has a prime divisor not in the original list, leading to a contradiction.

9 Applications of Prime Numbers

• Cryptography: Prime numbers form the basis of RSA encryption, where large
prime factorizations secure data transmission.

• Computational Number Theory: Algorithms such as the AKS primality test

determine whether a number is prime in polynomial time.

• Unsolved Problems: Open questions like the Riemann Hypothesis and Gold-
bach’s Conjecture continue to drive research.

10 Conclusion
The study of prime numbers and divisibility plays a central role in number theory and
its applications. From historical developments to modern cryptography, these concepts
form the backbone of mathematical research and technological advancements.

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