ASU

PHY131: Exam 2 Review

DR. BUTTON
EMAIL: [email protected]
OFFICE: PSH 558
OFFICE HOURS: TU/TH 9:15-10:15 AM OR BY APPOINTMENT
Today

 Magnetism, Magnetic forces on charged particles, Magnetic flux

 Magnetic Fields and Forces in wires
 Faraday’s and Lenz’s Laws, and Motional EMF
 Displacement Current and Maxwell’s Equations
 Inductance
 R-L, R-C, and L-R-C circuits
 AC circuits, Impedance, Resonance
Direct Current
Magnetic Force as a Vector Product

 The magnetic force

is best represented
as a vector product.
Right-Hand Rule for Magnetic
Force
Right-Hand Rule for Magnetic
Force
 If the charge is negative, the direction of the force
is opposite to that given by the right-hand rule.
Magnetic Flux

 To define the magnetic flux, we can divide any surface

into elements of area dA.
 The magnetic flux through the area element is defined

to be dΦB = 𝐵⊥ 𝑑𝐴 .
Magnetic Flux

 The total magnetic flux through the surface is the sum of

the contributions from the individual area elements:

 The magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero:

Motion of Charged Particles in a
Magnetic Field
 When a charged particle
moves in a magnetic
field, it is acted on by the
magnetic force.
 The force is always
perpendicular to the
velocity, so it cannot
change the speed of the
particle.
The Magnetic Force on a
Current-Carrying Conductor
 The figure shows a straight
segment of a conducting
wire, with length l and cross-
sectional area A.
 The magnitude of the force
on a

single charge is 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝐵.

 If the number of charges

per unit volume is n, then
the total force on all the
charges in this segment is
𝐹 = 𝑛𝐴𝑙 𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝐵 = 𝑛𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝐴 l𝐵
The Magnetic Force on a
Current-Carrying Conductor
 The force is always perpendicular to both the
conductor and the field, with the direction
determined by the same right-hand rule we
used for a moving positive charge.
The Magnetic Force on a
Current-Carrying Conductor
 The magnetic force
on a segment of a
straight wire can be
represented as a
vector product.
Force and Torque on a Current Loop
 The net force on a current loop
in a uniform magnetic field is
zero.
 We can define a magnetic

moment 𝜇Ԧ with magnitude

IA, and direction as shown.
 The net torque on the loop is
given by the vector product:
The Magnetic Field of a Moving Charge

A moving charge
generates a magnetic
field that depends on the
velocity of the charge,
and the distance from the
charge.
Magnetic Field of a Current Element

The total magnetic field of

several moving charges is
the vector sum of each field.
The magnetic field caused
by a short segment of a
current-carrying conductor
is found using the law of Biot
and Savart:
Magnetic Field of a Circular Current Loop

The magnetic field along the

axis of a loop of radius a
carrying a current I is given
by the equation below.
The direction is given by the
right-hand rule shown.
Magnetic Field Lines of a Circular Current
Loop
The figure shows some of the
magnetic field lines
surrounding a circular
current loop (magnetic
dipole) in planes through the
axis.
The field lines for the circular
current loop are closed
curves that encircle the
conductor; they are not
circles, however.
Ampere's Law (General Statement)

This equation is valid for conductors and paths of any

shape.
If the integral around the closed path is zero, it does not
necessarily mean that the magnetic field is everywhere
along the path, only that the total current through an
area bounded by the path is zero.
Ex: Again, find the B-Field from a long straight conducting wire.
Ex: A cylindrical conductor with radius R carries a current, I. The current is
uniformly distributed over the cross-sectional area of the conductor. Find
the B-field as a function of distance r from the axis of the conductor for
points both inside (r<R) and outside (r>R).
Faraday's Law of Induction

When the magnetic flux through a single closed

loop changes with time, there is an induced emf
that can drive a current around the loop:

 Recall that the unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb).


1 T.m2 = 1 Wb, so 1 V = 1 Wb/s
Lenz's Law

Lenz’s law is a convenient

method for determining the
direction of an induced current
or emf:
The direction of any magnetic
induction effect is such as to
oppose the cause of the effect.
For example, in the figure there is
a uniform magnetic field through
the coil.
The magnitude of the field is
increasing, so there is an induced
emf driving a current, as shown.
Motional Electromotive Force

When a conducting rod moves perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field,

there is a motional emf induced.
Displacement Current

When a capacitor is charging,

the electric field is increasing
between the plates.
We can define a fictitious
displacement current iD in the
region between the plates.
This can be regarded as the
source of the magnetic field
between the plates.
Maxwell's Equations of Electromagnetism

 All the relationships between electric and magnetic

fields and their sources are summarized by four
equations, called Maxwell’s equations.
 The first Maxwell equation is Gauss’s law for electric fields
from Chapter 22:

 The second Maxwell equation is Gauss’s law for magnetic

fields from Chapter 27:
Maxwell's Equations of Electromagnetism

 The third Maxwell equation is this chapter’s formulation

of Faraday’s law:

 The fourth Maxwell equation is Ampere’s law, including

displacement current:
Maxwell's Equations in Empty Space

 There is a remarkable
symmetry in Maxwell’s
equations.
 In empty space where there
is no charge, the first two
equations are identical in
form.
 The third equation says that
a changing magnetic flux
creates an electric field, and
the fourth says that a
changing electric flux
creates a magnetic field.
Self-Inductance

Any circuit with a coil that

carries a varying current has
a self-induced emf.
We define the self-
inductance L of the circuit
as:
Inductors as Circuit Elements

In the circuit shown, the

box enables us to
control the current i in
the circuit.
The potential difference
between the terminals
of the inductor L is:
𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Magnetic Field Energy

A resistor is a device in
which energy is
irrecoverably dissipated.
By contrast, energy stored in
a current-carrying inductor
can be recovered when the
current decreases to zero.
Current Growth in an R-L Circuit

 Suppose that at some initial time t =

0 we close switch S1.
 The current cannot change
suddenly from zero to some final
value.
 As the current increases, the rate of
increase of current given becomes
smaller and smaller.
 This means that the current
approaches a final, steady-state
value I.
 The time constant for the circuit is
𝐿
𝜏= .
𝑅
Current Decay in an R-L Circuit

 Suppose there is an initial current I0

running through the resistor and
inductor shown.
 At time t = 0 we close the switch S2,
bypassing the battery (not shown).
 The energy stored in the magnetic
field of the inductor provides the
energy needed to maintain a
decaying current.
 The time constant for the exponential
decay of the current is
𝐿
𝜏= .
𝑅
Electrical Oscillations in an L-C Circuit

 We can apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the

circuit shown.
 This leads to an equation with the same form
as that for simple harmonic motion studied in
Chapter 14.
 The charge on the capacitor and current
through the circuit are functions of time:

𝑞 = 𝑄 cos( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑖 = −𝜔Qsin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
The L-R-C Series Circuit

Consider the circuit shown.

The emf source charges the
capacitor initially.
When the switch is moved to
the lower position, we have
an inductor with inductance
L and a resistor of resistance
R connected in series across
the terminals of a charged
capacitor, forming an L-R-C
series circuit.
The L-R-C Series Circuit

An L-R-C circuit exhibits

damped harmonic motion if
the resistance is not too large.
The charge as a function of
time is sinusoidal oscillation
with an exponentially
decaying amplitude, and
angular frequency:
Alternating Current
ac Sources and Currents

 A sinusoidal voltage might be described by a function

such as:
𝜐 = 𝑉 cos 𝜔 𝑡

 Here v is the instantaneous potential difference, V is the

voltage amplitude, and 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 is the angular frequency.
 In the United States and Canada, commercial electric-
power distribution systems use a frequency f = 60 Hz.
 The corresponding sinusoidal alternating current is:
Root-Mean-Square Values

 For sinusoidal ac sources, the rms current and voltage values are:

 This wall socket has a voltage

amplitude of V = 170 V, meaning that
the voltage alternates between +170
V and −170 V.
 The rms voltage is Vrms = 120 V.
Resistor in an ac Circuit
Inductor in an ac Circuit

 When an inductor is
connected with an ac
source, the voltage and
current amplitudes are
related by:

 The inductive reactance is 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿, the greater the

inductance and the higher the frequency, the

greater the inductive reactance.
Inductor in an ac Circuit
Capacitor in an ac Circuit

 When a capacitor is
connected with an ac source,
the voltage and current
amplitudes are related by:

1
 The capacitive reactance is 𝑋𝐶 = the greater the
𝜔𝐶

capacitance and the higher the frequency, the

smaller the capacitive reactance.
Capacitor in an ac Circuit
The L-R-C Series Circuit

 When a resistor, inductor, and

capacitor are connected in
series with an ac source, the
voltage and current
amplitudes are related by:

 The impedance of the circuit is:

𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2
The L-R-C Series Circuit
Power in a General ac Circuit

 In any ac circuit, with any combination

of resistors, capacitors, and inductors, the
voltage v across the entire circuit

has some phase angle 𝜑 with respect

to the current i.
 The factor cos 𝜑 is called the power

factor of the circuit.

 For a pure resistor, the power factor is 1.
Resonance in ac Circuits
 Shown are graphs of R, XL, XC,
and Z as functions of log 𝜔.

 As the frequency increases, XL

increases and XC decreases;
hence there is always one
frequency at which XL and XC
are equal and XL − XC is zero.
 At this frequency the
impedance Z has its smallest
value, equal simply to the
resistance R.
Resonance in ac Circuits
 As we vary the angular frequency 𝜔 of the source, the
maximum value of I occurs at the frequency at which the
impedance Z is minimum.
 This peaking of the current amplitude at a
certain frequency is called resonance.
 The angular frequency 𝜔0 at which the resonance Peak
Occurs is called the resonance angular frequency.
 At 𝜔 = 𝜔0 the inductive reactance XL and capacitive
1
𝜔0 L =
Reactance XC are equal, so 𝜔0 𝐶
and:
Questions?