THE MEANING OF STATISTICS

The branch of Mathematics that deals with the

collection, tabulation or presentation, analysis,
and interpretation of numerical or quantitative
data, and drawing conclusions about a
population from knowledge of the properties of a
sample.
 THE STATISTICAL METHOD
1. Data Gathering
2. Data Presentation
3. Data Analysis
 DATA GATHERING
It involves getting information through
interviews, questionnaires, objective
observations, experimentations, psychological
tests and other methods. Usually, the
information is translated into numerical or
quantitative data.
 DATA PRESENTATION
By using graphs, figures, and tables, the data
collected can be exhibited. Understanding the
data as well as its interpretation become easy
through the different methods of presenting
data.
 DATA ANALYSIS
This involves the use of any method of statistics, the
choice of which depends upon the nature or purpose
of the research problem at hand. Results of data
analysis are explained and interpreted. This includes
relating the findings to the existing theories and
earlier studies in the area.
 AREAS OF STATISTICS

1. Descriptive Statistics
2. Inferential Statistics
 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
This area of statistics deals with merely collecting
and summarizing data.
• Measures of Central Tendency • Skewness
✓ Mean • Kurtosis
✓ Median
✓ Mode
• Measures of Variability or Dispersion
✓ Range
✓ Mean Deviation
✓ Standard Deviation
 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Shows how inferences or conclusions can be drawn
from sample data. It involves the drawing of
inferences about a population based on the
properties of a sample.
• z-test • ANOVA
• t-test • Pearson r
• f-test • Spearman
• Chi-square • Other tests
 APPLICATIONS OF STATISTICS
1. It can give a precise description of data.
2. It can predict the behavior of individuals.
3. It can be used to test a hypothesis.
TERMINOLOGIES
IN
STATISTICS
 DATA
is a set of observations, values, elements or
objects under consideration.
 QUALITATIVE DATA
are the results when the information has been
sorted into categories. For instance, students
can be classified according to sex, age or
course, or any category that does not require
counting.
 POPULATION
is the complete set of all possible observation
of elements. It is a group or aggregate of
people, objects, or events.
 QUANTITATIVE DATA
are the results of counting or measuring. For
example, we say that there are 50 students in
a certain class or that the dimensions of the
board are about 1.25 meters by 8 meters or
that the temperature today is 33 oC.
 SAMPLE
is a collection of some elements in a
population.
 VARIABLE
is a property whereby the members of a group
differ from one another.
 TYPES OF VARIABLE (Continuity of Values)
CONTINUOUS VARIABLES are variables
whose levels can take continuous values.
With this variable, you can make
measurements of varying degrees of
precision.
 TYPES OF VARIABLE (Continuity of Values)
DISCRETE VARIABLES are variables whose
values or levels cannot take the form of
decimals.
TYPES OF VARIABLE (Functional Relationship)
INDEPENDENT or PREDICTOR VARIABLE
is a variable that makes the outcome or
objective vary or differ. It is a factor which is
measured, manipulated or selected by the
experimenter to determine its relationship to
an observed phenomenon.
TYPES OF VARIABLE (Functional Relationship)
DEPENDENT or CRITERION VARIABLE
is the outcome or objective of the study. In
other words, it is the result. It is a factor,
property, characteristic or attribute that is
measured and make the object of the analysis
of the study
 SCALES
OF
MEASUREMENT
SCALES OR LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

1. Nominal Scale
2. Ordinal Scale
3. Interval Scale
4. Ratio Scale
 NOMINAL SCALE
The Nominal scale is lowest level of
measurement. Data in this level of
measurement consist of names only, or
qualities with no implied criteria by which the
data can be identified as greater than or less
than other data.
EXAMPLES OF DATA IN NOMINAL SCALE

1. Gender
2. Course
3. Religion
4. Favorite subject
5. School graduated from
 ORDINAL SCALE
Data in the ordinal level may be arranged in
some order but actual differences between
data values either cannot be determined or
they are meaningless. The values simply
express an order. Order matters but
differences do not.
FOR EXAMPLE…
Newly brokenhearted students were asked to
express the amount of pain they are feeling in a
scale of 1 to 10. A score of 7 means more pain than
a score of 5, and that is more than a score of 3.
However, the difference between 7 and 5 may not
be the same as that between 5 and 3.
EXAMPLES OF DATA IN ORDINAL SCALE

1. Ranks in the PNP

2. Classroom officers
3. Scales such as Excellent, Satisfactory,
Fair, and Poor
 INTERVAL SCALE
The INTERVAL level of measurement is like the
ordinal level, but it has the additional property. We
can say not only that one object is greater or less
than another, but we can also specify the amount of
difference. However, interval-level data may not
have a starting point or “zero” point.
 INTERVAL SCALE
In this level, you can add and subtract, but not
divide or multiply. Confused??? Okay, for
example…

consider this: 10oC + 10oC = 20oC. No problem

there. But, 20oC is not twice as hot as 10oC.
EXAMPLES OF DATA IN INTERVAL SCALE

1. Temperature
2. Calendar dates
 RATIO SCALE
The RATIO level of measurement is the highest
level. The ratio level is similar to the interval level.
The only difference is that the ratio level always
starts from an absolute or true zero point. In
addition, in the ratio level, there is always the
presence of units of measurement.
EXAMPLES OF DATA IN RATIO SCALE

1. Weight
2. Age
3. Height
4. Distance
Identify the scale of measurement for each of the following:
1. Dress size (S,M,L,XL) _____________________
ORDINAL
2. IQ Scores _____________________
INTERVAL
3. Speed of a car _____________________
RATIO
4. Civil status _____________________
NOMINAL
5. Ranks in the army ORDINAL
_____________________
6. Land Area _____________________
RATIO
7. Salary of Workers _____________________
RATIO
RATIO
8. Number of books in the library _____________________
9. Address _____________________
NOMINAL
10. Waistline RATIO
_____________________
 ACTIVITY

List 10 items associated with students’ life.

Give the list to the other group members and
let them categorize the items according to
scale of measurement.
COMPUTING THE
SAMPLE SIZE
Let’s have a review…
POPULATION is the complete set of all possible
observation of elements. It is a group or
aggregate of people, objects, or events.

SAMPLE is a collection of some elements

in a population.
 DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE
In determining the sample size, the Slovin’s
Formula is used.
Where:

n – sample size
N – population
e – margin of error
FOR EXAMPLE…
If in your research, the population is 9,000 and the margin of error you
allow is 5%, then what is your representative sample?
𝑁 9000
𝑛= 2 𝑛 =
1+𝑁𝑒 1+22.5
9000 9000
𝑛= 𝑛=
1+9000(0.05)2 23.5
9000
𝑛= 𝑛 = 382.98 𝑜𝑟 383
1+9000(0.0025)
 LESSON EXERCISE
A group of researchers will conduct a survey to find out the
opinion of ISU students regarding the increase of fare in
Jones. If there are 1,600 students and the researchers plan to
use a sample using a 10% margin of error, what should the
sample size be?
What will happen to the sample size if the margin of error
becomes 5%? Becomes 2%? Becomes 1%? Becomes 0%?
Compute and discuss with your seatmate.
 SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

SAMPLING TECHNIQUE is a procedure used to

determine the individuals or members of a sample. It is
used to answer the question concerning who will be
included in the sample. There are two types of sampling
techniques: (1) Probability Sampling and (2) Non-
Probability Sampling.
 TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
1. Probability Sampling is a technique where all
elements in the population frame have an equal
chance of being selected. Representative samples of
the population are selected using this procedure.
Findings of researches using a probability sampling
can be used to infer the characteristics of the
population. Findings are more valid when probability
sampling is used.
 TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
2. Non-Probability Sampling is a strategy where not all
elements in the population frame have an equal
chance of being selected. Certain parts in the overall
group are deliberately not included in the selection of
the representative subgroup. This strategy is also
called non-random or judgment sampling because
it makes use of judgment in the selection of items to
be put into the subgroup.
PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
 RANDOM SAMPLING
Random Sampling is the method of selecting a sample size (n) from a
population (N) such that each member has an equal chance of being
included in the sample and all possible combinations of size (n) have an
equal chance of being selected as the sample.

A prerequisite for the randomness of the selection is a complete listing of the

population. Thus, prior to the actual picking of sample units, the complete
listing or enumeration of the population has to be undertaken. This phase
provides the researcher the list from where he would randomly pick his
sample units.
TYPES OF RANDOM
SAMPLING
LOTTERY SAMPLING or FISHBOWL TECHNIQUE
The lottery sampling method is the most common random sampling technique. It is done
by simply writing the names or numbers of all the members of the population in small rolled
pieces of paper which are later placed in a container. The researcher shakes the container
thoroughly then draws as many pieces of papers desired in the sample.

There are two arrangements in using the lottery sampling. First is sampling without
replacement in which the drawn papers are no longer returned in the container. The other
procedure called sampling with replacement involves returning to the container every piece
of paper drawn. This arrangement holds the probability constant. If we have one hundred
rolled sheets of paper, the probability of choosing one in 100 is maintained throughout the
process.
 TABLE OF RANDOM NUMBERS
Various Tables of Random Numbers have been
constructed by some statisticians systematically
and mechanically. The Table of Random Numbers
contains rows and columns of digits randomly
ordered by a computer or by a calculator.
HOW TO USE THE TABLE OF RANDOM NUMBERS
HOW TO USE THE TABLE OF RANDOM NUMBERS
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
This method involves selecting every nth element of a series representing
the population. To apply this, first divide the number of the population by the
desired sample size. The result is the sampling interval. If for instance your
population is 1000 and the desired sample size is 200, then, the interval is 5.
By fishbowl technique, draw from 1 to 5 a number that represents the starting
point. If you have drawn 4, then the subjects numbered 4, 9, 14, 19, and so
on will comprise the sample until you get 200 samples. If you have drawn 2,
then the sample consists of the subjects numbered 2, 7, 12, 17, and so on.
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING

Stratified sampling is a sampling technique in such a way

that specific subgroups or strata will have a sufficient
number of representatives within the sample to provide
ample numbers for sub-analysis of the members of these
subgroups. There are two ways of employing this
technique.
TYPES OF STRATIFIED
SAMPLING
 SIMPLE STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

This is done by separating the lists of subgroups in the

population and simply drawing randomly the desired
sample size from each subgroup. In drawing the subject,
any of the random sampling techniques may be used.
 PROPORTIONAL STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
In some cases, the characteristic of the population is such
that the proportions of the subgroups are grossly unequal.
The researcher may wish to maintain this characteristic in
the sample. Therefore, the stratified proportional
technique may be used.
 EXAMPLE
The population of Jones Rural School is given as follows:
freshmen = 450, sophomores = 420, juniors = 340, and
seniors = 290. Use Slovin’s Formula with a 5% margin of
error to determine the sample size of a study involving the
students. Apply simple stratified and stratified proportional
random sampling techniques to determine the number of
sample size per year level.
 CLUSTER SAMPLING
Cluster sampling occurs when you select the members of
your sample in clusters rather than in using separate
individuals. It is a sampling technique in which groups, not
individuals, are randomly selected. Any intact group of
similar characteristics is a cluster. This sampling is
sometimes referred to as area sampling because it is
frequently applied on a geographical basis.
 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING
This technique uses several stages or phases in getting the
sample from the general population. However, selection of the
sample is still done at random. Multi-stage sampling is useful in
conducting nationwide surveys or any survey involving a large
universe. This is done by starting the selection of the members of
the sample using cluster sampling and then dividing each cluster
or group into strata. Then, from each stratum, individuals are
drawn randomly using simple random sampling.
NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
 CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
This sampling strategy is based on the convenience it offers to the
researcher. For instance, if you want to know the opinions of
Filipinos about the most popular noontime show in the Philippines
through telephone interviews, you will have the chance to
interview only those who have telephones which is not fair to
those who have no telephones. Such sampling is done for
convenience.
 PURPOSIVE or DELIBERATE SAMPLING
This type of sampling is based on certain criteria laid down by the
researcher. People who satisfy the criteria are interviewed. A
researcher might want to find out, for example, the reactions of the
banking community to a particular Central Bank circular. Instead of
interviewing the executives of all banks, he purposely can choose
to interviews the key executives of only the five biggest banks in
the country if he believes that it is the reaction of these big ones
that counts anyway. Of course, the answers obtained through this
procedure are not representative of the entire banking system.
 QUOTA SAMPLING
In quota sampling, you identify a set of important
characteristics of a population and then select your
desired samples in a non-random way. It is assumed that
the samples will match the population with regard to the
chosen set of characteristics.
EXERCISES
 Sampling Sampling
Cases
Technique Strategy
Selecting every fifth member of the class to participate in the school program.
Predicting the candidate who will win in the local election by interviewing voters from
precincts where they voted for the winners in the last election.
Interviewing students coming from each of the sections Masipag, Mabait, and
Magalang.
Choosing the names of winners from a draw box
Using random numbers generated by a calculator to choose the contestants in a Math
quiz
Finding out the most preferred brand of shampoo of 200 persons through text
messaging
Asking Filipino high school students what their favorite subjects are.
Determining the average weekly allowance of ISU students using only seven out of
the 28 sections
Choosing in a non-random way the 80 teenagers from 1000 teenagers to tell what
activities they prefer during their free time
Investigating the attitude towards math of freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors
in a college