CHAPTER # 2

SOCIAL PERCEPTION

Qarsam Munawar
 FIELD OF INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION
• Interpersonal Perception is a new area of social psychology related to
how people view one another.
• Studying interpersonal perception required an observation of at least
two actual people.
• It examines the various types of judgements people make about others
using both verbal and non-verbal cues.
• AREAS OF INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION:
• Social psychologists have paid attention to two major related areas of
interpersonal perception-
• Person perception
• Social perception
• PERSON PERCEPTION:
• Person perception refers to the manner in which impressions, opinions
or feelings about other persons are formed.
• The basic assumption of person perception is that the perceiver may
exist apart from and outside the world of the person being judged.
 SOCIAL PERCEPTION
• Social perception is the key component of social skill and social interaction.
“The process through which we seek to know and understand other people”
• “An active process to study how people form an impression and make
inferences about other people”

• EXPLANATION: Perception is a way of regarding, understanding, or

interpreting something; a mental impression. We learn about other's feelings
and emotions by picking up on information we gather from their physical
appearance, and verbal and nonverbal communication. Facial expressions,
tone of voice, hand gestures, and body position are just a few examples of
ways people communicate without words.

• EXAMPLE:
• A real-world example of social perception would be understanding that
someone disagrees with what you said when you see them roll their eyes.
 SOCIAL PERCEPTION-THE PROCESS

• Social perception refers to the initial stages in

which people process information to determine
another individual’s mind set.
• According to the implicit personality theory,
people pay attention to a variety of cues,
including visual, auditory, and verbal cues to
predict and understand the personality of others.
• These help in filling in the gap of the unknown
information about a person, which is a key for
social skills and social interactions.
 SOCIAL PERCEPTION INCLUDES
• Nonverbal communication
• Attribution
• Impression formation
• Nonverbal Communication
• Nonverbal behavior is any type of communication that does not involve speaking,
including facial expressions, body language, touching, voice patterns, and interpersonal
distance.
• Nonverbal behaviors are used to reinforce spoken words (Hostetter, 2011) but also
include such things as interpersonal distance (how far away from you the other person
stands), tone of voice, eye gaze, and hand gestures and body positions (DePaulo et al.,
2003).
• The ability to decode nonverbal behavior is learned early, even before the development
of language (Walker-Andrews, 2008).
• We tend to like people who have a pleasant tone of voice and open posture, who stand an
appropriate distance away from us, and who look at and touch us for the “right” amount
of time—not too much or too little.
• And, of course, behavior matters; people who walk faster are perceived as happier and
more powerful than those who walk more slowly (Montepare & Zebrowitz-McArthur,
1988).
 Cont...
• The importance of body movement has been
demonstrated in studies in which people are viewed in
point-light displays in dark rooms with only small
lights at their joints.
• Research has found that observers are able to accurately
recognize the behavior of others from these minimal
displays (Clarke, Bradshaw, Field, Hampson, & Rose,
2005; Johnson, Gill, Reichman, & Tassinary, 2007)
• People can also determine personality by tone of voice
provided by degraded and incomprehensible speech
(Ambady & Hogan, 2006).
 Cont..
• Here's how these cues contribute to social perception and how we
can interpret them:
• Facial Expressions:
• Understanding the basic emotions expressed through facial expressions helps in
recognizing others' emotional states. It's important to be attentive to subtle
changes in facial expressions to gauge more nuanced emotions.
• Eye Contact:
• Proper eye contact can convey confidence, interest, and friendliness. Lack of eye
contact might indicate shyness or disinterest. However, cultural differences should
be considered, as norms around eye contact vary.
• Body Language:
• Observing body posture and movements provides valuable information about
someone's mood or emotions. Being aware of your own body language and
adapting it to the situation can enhance social interactions.
 Cont..
• Touching:
• Understanding the context of touch is crucial. In some cultures,
physical contact is more acceptable than in others. Being mindful of
personal boundaries and cultural norms helps in using touch
appropriately.
• Voice Quality:
• Paying attention to vocal cues such as tone, pitch, and speed can
reveal underlying emotions. Practicing effective vocal
communication involves modulating these qualities based on the
emotional content of the message.
• Physical Appearance:
• While body build and physical appearance may not always
accurately reflect personality, being aware of potential biases can
help in avoiding stereotypes. Understanding that appearances can be
deceiving allows for a more open-minded social perception.
 Inculcating Social Perception Skills
• Cultural Awareness:
• Recognize and respect cultural differences in non-verbal communication. What may
be acceptable in one culture could be perceived differently in another.
• Active Listening:
• Pay close attention to verbal and non-verbal cues during conversations. This helps
in understanding others' perspectives and emotions.
• Empathy:
• Put yourself in others' shoes to better understand their feelings and experiences.
This can enhance your ability to interpret non-verbal cues accurately.
• Self-Awareness:
• Understand your own non-verbal communication tendencies and how they might be
perceived by others. This self-awareness can help you adjust your behaviors
accordingly.
• Open-Mindedness:
• Avoid making snap judgments based solely on non-verbal cues. Stay open-minded
and consider multiple factors that may influence someone's behavior.
• Incorporating these practices can enhance your social perception skills, allowing for
more effective and empathetic communication in various interpersonal interactions
 IMPRESSION FORMATION
• Impression
• The effect produced by impressing such as:
• An especially marked and often favorable influence or effect
on feeling, sense or mind.
• A stamp, form or figure resulting from physical contact.
• Impression formation
• Impression formation is the process by which individuals
perceive, organize and ultimately integrate information to
form unified and coherent situated impression of others.
• The techniques most probably used for impression formation
is self enhancement to improve our own appearance, manner
or general behavior and other enhancement is the effort to
make a particular person feel good in our presence.
 INTEGRATING INFORMATION ABOUT OTHERS
• Models of information integration:
• There are several models to explain how
perceivers combine information about the
stimulus person or the stranger. Two different
models, that is
• Additive model
• Averaging model
• They emerged out of the large body of
researches, concerning how several units of
information are integrated into an overall
impression (Anderson, 1986)
 Cont..
• Additive model:
• Additive model maintains that each unit of information is assigned a
value and added in with others to produce an overall impression of
the other people.
• Example:
• In order to apply additive model to predict how you feel towards a
stranger, you may be asked to rate the value or importance of certain
characteristics of stranger.
• Scale:
• Using scale of ±1 to ±10(the scale is arbitrary)
• Example:
• The perceiver gives the value to such traits like tolerant (+6),
responsible (+7) and friendly (+5); so, his overall impression score
will be equal to 6+7+5=18
 Cont…
• Averaging model:
• This model proposes that ratings the traits are averaged rather than
summed.
• In averaging model, the impact of new information depends on
whether this information is more favorable or less favorable than
the overall impression we already have in our mind.
• Example:
• Consequently, incorporating a new, mildly positive trait (like
sincere) into a strongly positive or favorable impression makes the
resulting impression less positive, whereas including a mildly
negative trait (like unimaginative) to a strongly negative
impression makes the resulting impression less negative.
 Cont..
• 2. Negativity effect:
• The observation has been that we tend to pay special attention to negative or
potentially threatening information.
• When we come to form an overall impression of the other person, the
negative information is weighed more heavily.
• That is, everything being equal, negative information affects an impression
more than the positive trait.
• The explanation for this negativity effect is that such units of information are
more unusual and distinctive.

• 3. Positivity bias:
• People tend to perceive other people more often positively than negatively.
• This is called positivity bias.
• Positivity bias and negativity effect work together in forming the overall
impression.
• People generally act in a good way towards each other.
• People who are optimistic display a stronger attentional bias for positive
stimuli relative to negative stimuli, and in forming the overall impression, they
exhibit more positivity bias.
 Cont..
4. Imputing consistency
• In forming the overall impression, even in the situation where the
observer has a very few pieces of information, he tends to impute
consistency in the characterization of others.
• Due to this tendency, we tend to categories people as good or bad,
social or unsocial, etc.
• We then go on to perceive other traits consistent with this basic
evaluation.
• Such tendency towards evaluative consistency is known as halo
effect.
• For example:
• if the person is categorized as good, he is also perceived as
intelligent, social, generous, etc. If he is categorized as bad, he may
be perceived as ugly, dull, inept, etc.
 Cont..
5. First impression versus latter impression:
• The common belief is that the first impression is comparatively
more important and has an enduring impact in forming the
impression of other. In fact, this belief has been supported by many
empirical researchers.
• Primacy effect:
• Observer who forms an impression of others give more weight to
the information received by early in sequence than to the
information received later in sequence. This is called primacy effect.
• Recency effect: Although primacy effect is a common phenomenon,
sometimes, it does not occur and rather its opposite state occurs.
There are conditions or situations in which the most recent
information that we acquire, exerts the biggest and the strongest
influence upon the overall impression formation. This is technically
called recency effect
 Cont...
• 6. Schemas:
• Generally, we process and form impression
about other using stereotypes we hold about
the categories that define the people.
• Technically these stereotypes are called
schemas which is organized, structured set of
mental frameworks including some knowledge
about the category, which helps us in
organizing social information and processing
such information.
 Cont..
• 7. Prototypes:
• When we form impression about others, we often
utilize prototype of the schema.
• The prototype is defined as an abstract ideal of the
schema.
• Usually, prototypes are specified in terms of a set of
attributes or characteristics
• 9. Exemplars:
• Most social psychologists today agree that forming
impression of others involves not only prototypes or
ideal abstractions but also the exemplars-concrete
examples of behaviors that they have performed and we
have actually encountered.
 IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
• Impression management is a conscious or subconscious process in which people
attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object or
event by regulating and controlling information in social interaction.
• Impression management is very important in the development and maintenance
of social relationships.
• IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT: TACTICS
• Jones & Pittman offered five strategies of impression management:
• Self-Promotion
• Ingratiation
• Exemplification
• Intimidation
• Supplication.
• Use of a particular strategy depends on what attribution the first party is seeking
from the second party.
 INGRATIATION
• Ingratiation is a psychological technique in which an individual attempts to
influence another person by becoming more likeable to their target.
• This term was coined by social psychologist Edward E. Jones, who further
defined ingratiation as "a class of strategic behaviors illicitly designed to
influence other person concerning the attractiveness of one's personal qualities.
• Ingratiation research has identified some specific tactics of employing
ingratiation:
• Complimentary Other-Enhancement: the act of using compliments or flattery
to improve the esteem of another individual. By praising the target's qualities,
achievements, or actions, the individual attempts to create a positive impression.
• Rendering Favors: Performing helpful requests for another individual. By
assisting them with tasks, offering support, or fulfilling requests, the individual
seeks to create a sense of indebtedness or reciprocity in the target.
• Expression of Humor: By engaging in light-hearted or entertaining interactions,
the individual aims to create a positive and enjoyable experience for the target.
Humor can help to establish rapport, ease tension, and create a sense of
camaraderie between the individuals involved.
 Cont..
• Types of ingratiation:
• Acquisitive ingratiation: ingratiation with the goal of
obtaining some form of resource or reward from a target
individual.
• Protective Ingratiation: ingratiation used to prevent
possible sanctions or other negative consequences elicited
from a target individual.
• Significance ingratiation: ingratiation designed to cultivate
respect and/or approval from a target individual, rather than
an explicit reward.
• EXAMPLE: Wearing attractive cloths, taking cautiously or
if a woman wants to get her mother-in-law to like her, she
may "HUG HER" to her by giving her compliments or gifts.
 Cont..
• INTIMIDATION:
• Intimidation, where people signal their power or potential to punish in order to
be seen as dangerous by observers. It may be inferred from conduct, words, or
circumstances reasonably calculated to produce fear.
• EXAMPLES: Physical violence or threats, Yelling or screaming, Ridiculing or
insulting you in front of coworkers or customers .
• Intentionally assigning tasks outside your expertise, Finding fault with your
work
• Taking credit for your work
• SELF-PROMOTION:
• Self-promotion - increasing one's own power, bragging, to be perceived as
competent or good.
• Self-promotion refers to the practice of purposefully trying to present oneself as
highly competent to other people.
• When people self-promoter, their primary motivation is to be perceived by
others as capable, intelligent, or talented (even at the expense of being liked).
 Cont..
• EXAMPLIFICATION:
• Exemplification is defined as a strategic self-presentational
strategy whereby an individual attempts to project an image
of integrity and moral worthiness.
• A person can accomplish exemplification by presenting
him- or herself as honest, disciplined, self- sacrificing,
generous, or principled.
• Exemplification, with its basis in morality and ethics, has
been highly associated with perceived leader effectiveness
and follower satisfaction, although notable scandals such as
those involving Exemplification can have a serious impact
on the leader if misused.
 Cont.
• SUPPLICATION:
• Supplication, where individuals advertise their weaknesses or shortcomings in
order to elicit an attribution of being needy from observers.
• Supplication is a form of prayer in which someone makes a humble petition or
an entreaty God. There is always a request in supplication. In this type of
prayer, one asks for or desires something from God.
• EXAMPLE: The need for money may or may not be real, but the advertising
of need constitutes supplication. Another example familiar to most people is
crying. The student who cries to a professor over a grade or the driver who
cries to the police officer over a ticket may be supplicating-trying to get help
or mercy via pity.
• Conclusion:
• From all the objectives, techniques, findings, tactics, and tips we can conclude
that Impression Management plays a vital role.
• So, Impression Management is the process through which one person
influence others
 Attribution
• Attribution refers to the process of understanding and thinking about people within
special situations, as one tends to try and explain the behavior of others."
• "It is the process of identifying the causes of others behavior and their stable traits
and dispositions."
• "Attribution refers to how people explain the cause of another's or their own
behavior."
• DETERMINATION FACTORS OF ATTRIBUTION:
• The determination of attribution depends upon the following factors;
• 1. Distinctiveness (on the basis of differentiation)
• 2. Consensus (on the basis of similarity)
• 3. Consistency (on the basis of consistent behavior I.e. How consistent we are in our
behavior)
• 4. Stereotyping (tendency to perceive another person as belonging to a single class
or category
• 5. Halo effect (tendency to perceive another person on the basis of one trait or
event)
 ATTRIBUTION PROCESSES
• People use attribution processes to explain the causes of
behavior they see in others.
• Attribution process is of two types;
• Situational attribution
• Personal attribution
• 1. Situational Attribution
• "In situational attribution aspects of the situation, not the
qualities of the person cause the person's behavior."
• 2. Personal Attribution:
• In personal attribution the characteristics of the person
such as beliefs, disposition or personality causes the
person's behavior but not the situation.
 THEORIES OF ATTRIBUTION
• Heider's naive psychology attribution theory
• The earliest formulation of attribution theory emerged from the work of Fritz
Heider (1958).
• His proposition was that the persons are naive psychologist, who always try to
understand and seek causation to the behavior of others in order to make
prediction about others' behavior.
• According to Heider's theory, most of the persons apply one of the following
three possible explanations to the causes of the behavior of others:
1. They may explain that other person's behavior or the behavior of the target
person is caused by the surrounding situation. In other words, the person
does a particular behavior under situational pressure and constraints.
2. The second explanation may be that the behavior done by the target person is
unintentional, and probably, it will not be occurring in future.
3. The third explanation may be that the target person has done the behavior
intentionally due to his personal attribute. Once the personal attribute has
been identified about the target person, prediction about his future behavior
becomes easy.
 CORRESPONDENT INFERENCE THEORY:
• This theory was coined by Jones and Davis in 1965.
• The theory is concerned with how we decide, on the basis of others
overt actions, that they possess specific traits or dispositions that
they carry with them from situation to situation, and that remain
fairly stable over time.
• This theory simply says that people try to explain behavior by
finding a match between the behavior they can see and the stable
qualities/personality traits of the person.
• When we infer others traits from their behavior, we accomplish three
distinct tasks that are;
1. We categorize an individual's behavior
2. we characterize the behavior
3. And we correct our inferences about this person's traits in the light of
information about the situation in which it has occurred.
 Cont...
• In sum, according to this theory, we are most likely
to conclude that others behavior reflects their stable
traits when the behavior is;
1. Freely chosen
2. Yields distinctive, non-common effects
3. Low in social desirability
• And behavior that originates from the situational
effects is;
1. Somehow forced.
2. Common in its effects
3. High in social desirability
 THEORY OF CASUAL ATTRIBUTION
• This theory was proposed by Horald Kelley in 1967. According to this theory, behavior can be
attributed to internal (disposition, person's traits,motives and intentions) factors or external
(situational) factors
• KELLY'S COVARIATION MODEL:
• 3 MAJOR DIMENSIONS:
• Kelley believed that there were three types of casual information which influenced our
judgments.
1. CONSENSUS: The extent to which other people behave in the same way in a similar
situation.
• EXAMPLE:
• Alison smokes a cigarette when she goes out for a meal with her friend. If her friend smokes
too, her behavior is high in consensus but if only Alison smokes its low.
2. DISTINCTIVENESS: The extent to which the person behaves in the same way in the
similar situations. It focuses on whether the behavior is unique to specific situations.
• EXAMPLE: If Alison only smokes when she is out with friends, her behavior is high in
distinctiveness. If she smokes at any time or any place, distinctiveness is low.
• CONSISTENCY: The extent to which the person behaves like this every time the
situation occurs. It focuses on the regularity of the behavior within those situations
• EXAMPLE:
• If Alison only smokes when she is out with friends, consistency is high. If she only smokes on
one special occasion, consistency is low.
 How We Attribute

• We attribute behavior by considering factors such

as consensus (how others behave), distinctiveness
(how the person behaves in similar situations),
and consistency (how the person behaves over
time).
• For example, if a person's behavior is consistent,
distinctive, and lacks consensus, we are more
likely to attribute it to their stable traits.
• Conversely, if the behavior is forced, common,
and high in social desirability, we may attribute it
to situational factors.
THE END