MATHEMATICS IN

THE MODERN
WORLD
FUNDAMENTALS OF
LOGIC
LOGIC

➢ The formal systematic study of the principles of valid reference and

correct reasoning.
➢ A discipline that deals with the study of reasoning. It provides rules and
techniques for determining whether a given argument is valid or not.

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PROPOSITIONAL
LOGIC
PROPOSITION

➢ A statement or proposition is a declarative sentence that is true or false but

not both.

➢ Propositional Variables such as p, q, r, s, t, etc. are used to represent

propositions.

➢ NOTE: IF THE SENTENCE GIVES COMMAND OR REQUEST AND IN

INTERROGATIVE FORM ARE NOT PROPOSITION.

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DETERMINE WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS ARE
PROPOSITIONS AND WHICH ARE NOT.

1. San Fernando City is the capital of La Union.

2. Cielo is beautiful and sexy.

3. Where are you going?

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CATEGORIES OF
PROPOSITION
CATEGORIES OF PROPOSITION

1. Qualitative Categories of Propositions

➢ Propositions are categorized as affirmative or negative. The following

sentences are example of affirmative propositions:
Whales are mammals
The following are examples of negative propositions:
Parallel lines never intersect.

2. Quantitative Categories of Propositions

➢ Propositions are further classified according to quantity or the

different possible extensions of their subject-terms.

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When quality and quantity are combined, propositions may be classified based
on its mood as follows:

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Determine whether each statement is A, E, I, or O proposition.

a. There are snakes in every forest.

b. Some crocodiles are found in the city.

c. All lambs are not tame.

d. Some men are never as free as a bird.

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LOGICAL
CONNECTIVES
LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

➢ Mathematical statements may be joined by logical connectives which are

used to combine simple propositions to form compound statements.

➢ These connectives are conjunction, disjunction, implication, biconditional,

and negation.

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LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

1. CONJUNCTION

➢ The conjunction of the propositions p and q is the compound

statement “p and q” denoted as p^q which is true only when both p
and q are true, otherwise it is false.

2. DISJUNCTION

➢ The disjunction of the propositions p and q is the compound statement

“p or q” denoted as p v q which is false only when both p and q are
false, otherwise, it is true

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LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

3. NEGATION

➢ The negation of the statement p is denoted by ~p where ~ is the

symbol for “not”. The truth value of the negation is always the reverse
of the truth value of the original statement.

4. CONDITIONAL

➢ The implication of the propositions p and q is the compound

statement “if p then q.” denoted as p q which is false only when both p
is true and q is false.

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LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

5. BI-CONDITIONAL

➢ The bi-conditional of the propositions p and q is the compound

statement “p if and only if q”. denoted as p q which is true only when
both p and q have the same truth values.

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LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

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To understand the use of symbols in logic, consider the following simple statements.
Let:
p: The Earth is round.
q: The Sun is cold.
r: It rains in Spain.
The following compound statements can be written in symbolic form.

1. The Earth is round and the sun is cold.

Symbolic Form: p ˄ q

2. Either the Earth is round or the Sun is not cold.

Symbolic Form: p ˅ ( ¬ q )

3. The Earth is round and either the Sun is not cold or it rains in the Spain.
Symbolic Form: p ˄ (q ˅ r)

4. If the Earth is round, then it rains in Spain.

Symbolic Form: p → r

5. The Earth is round if and only if it rains in Spain.

Symbolic Form: p r
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The following symbolic forms can be written in compound statement
1. ¬r (¬p ˄ q)
Compound Statement: It does not rain in Spain if and only if the earth is not round and
the sun is cold.
2. (q ˄ p) → r
Compound Statement: If the sun is cold and the earth is round, then it rains in Spain.
3. (¬q ˅ r) → ¬p
Compound Statement: If either the Sun is not cold or it rains in Spain, then the Earth is
not round.
4. r ˅ (¬ q ˄¬p)
Compound Statement: Either it rains in Spain or the Sun is not cold and the Earth is not
round.
5. (¬p ˅ r) ¬q
Compound Statement: Either the Earth is not round or it rains in Spain if and only if the
Sun is not cold.

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TRUTH TABLE
TRUTH TABLE

A truth table shows how the truth or falsity of a compound statement

depends on the truth or falsity of the simple statements from which it's
constructed.

A statement in sentential logic is built from simple statements using the logical
connectives , , , , and .

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TRUTH TABLE

So, we'll start by looking at truth tables should be true when both P
for the five logical connectives. Here's and Q are true, and false otherwise:
the table for negation:

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TRUTH TABLE

is true if either P is true or Q If → Then Statements – These

is true. It's only false if both P and Q statements are false only when p is
are false. true and q is false.

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TRUTH TABLE

If and Only If Statements – These statements are true

only when both p and q have the same truth values.

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CONSTRUCTING TRUTH TABLE

To create a truth table, follow these steps:

1. Determine the number of variables; for n variables, create a table with 2n rows. If
there are two variables (p, q), then you will need 22 or 4 rows. If there are three
variables (p, q, and r), you will need 23 or 8 rows.
2. List the variable and every combination of T and F for the given variables.

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CONSTRUCTING TRUTH TABLE

3. Then start with negations (“nots” or “~”), create a new column for each “piece” of the statement or
argument.
4. If two statements have the same truth values, then they are equivalent.

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EXAMPLE:
STATEMENT: (P ∧ Q) (~P ∨ Q)

Step 1: Determine the number of variables and rows needed, then write down all
possible combinations of p and q.

Step 2: (p ∧ q) (~p ∨ q) Write down values of ~p (or “not p”)

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EXAMPLE:
STATEMENT: (P ∧ Q) (~P ∨ Q)

Step 3: (p ∧ q) (~p ∨ q) Left Side: Is (p ∧ q) true?

Step 4: (p ∧ q) (~p ∨ q) Right Side: Is (~p ∨ q) true?

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EXAMPLE:
STATEMENT: (P ∧ Q) (~P ∨ Q)

Step 5: (p ∧ q) (~p ∨ q) Is the entire statement true?

Note: The entire statement is true only when the last column’s truth values are all “True.”

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ACTIVITY:

Statement: [ (p → ~q) ∧ q ] → ~p .
Is the entire statement true?

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THE INVERSE, THE
CONVERSE AND THE
CONTRAPOSITIVE
THE INVERSE, THE CONVERSE, AND THE
CONTRAPOSITIVE
Every conditional statement has three related statements. They are
called the inverse, the converse, and the contrapositive.
Suppose 𝑝 and 𝑞 are propositions. Given the implication 𝑝 → 𝑞. Its
inverse is ¬p→ ¬q, its converse is q→p, and its contrapositive is ¬q→
¬p.
That is,
GIVEN: If p, then q.
INVERSE: If not p, then not q.
CONVERSE: If q, then p.
CONTRAPOSITIVE: If not q, then not p.

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SUPPOSE 𝑝 AND 𝑞 ARE PROPOSITIONS.

Given the implication 𝑝 → 𝑞.

Its inverse is ¬p→ ¬q.

Its converse is q→p.

Its contrapositive is ¬q→ ¬p.

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TO DETERMINE WHETHER THE CONDITIONAL
STATEMENT IS TRUE OR FALSE:
WE THEN CREATE THE TRUTH TABLE FOR THE INVERSE, CONVERSE, AND
CONTRAPOSITIVE STATEMENTS.

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EXAMPLE:

Give the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the following implications:

a. If this movie is interesting, then I am watching it.

Answers:

Inverse: If this movie is not interesting, then I am not watching it.

Converse: If I am watching this movie, then it is interesting.

Contrapositive: If I am not watching this movie, then it is not interesting.

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EXAMPLE:

b. If p is prime number, then it is odd.

Answers:

Inverse: If p is not a prime number, then it is not odd.

Converse: If p is an odd number, then it is prime.
Contrapositive: If p is not an odd number, then it is not a prime.

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THANK YOU
ENGR. DOROTHY JOYCE S. DESIERTO, REM