CHAPTER

Oscillators
5
S.1Introduction
An oscillator is an electronic circuit which generates an ac output
signalwithout requiring any externally applied input signal. The frequency,
waveform and magnitude of output are controlled by the circuit itself. The
Oscillator does not require an external signal either to start or maintain
energy conversion process. It receives energy from dc power source and
changes it into ac energy of desired frequency. Thus, it acts as a source of
energy at aspecific frequency which may range from a few Hz to several
MHz.

An amplifier is a device which raises the strength of a weak signal

without any change in its general shape. An input signal must be given to
an amplifier. The frequency, waveform and magnitude of output depend on
the input signal. An amplifier also receives energy from dc power source for
its woking. Thus, the process of energy conversion takes place in an
amplifier also. The output of an amplifier is mostly ac. But in dc amplifier
the output may be ac or dc according to the type of input signal.
In this chapter different types of RC oscillators and LC oscillators are
described.
5.2 Uses of Oscillators
1. Oscillators are used in sine wave and square wave signal
generators,
which are useful as testing instruments.
2. Sine wave oscillators are useful as local oscillators in the tuner
circuits of radio and TV receivers.
3. High frequency carrier signals required in AM and FM (amplitude
modulation and frequency modulation) can be produced by using oscillators.
4. High frequency oscillators are used in induction and dielectric
heating.
5. Crystal oscillators are used in transmitter and receiver systems used
in aircrafts.
6.Relaxation oscillator using UJT is used in CRO for the generation of
time base (sawtooth) signal.
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Electronics Paper II Semiconductor Devices
5.3
Classification of Oscillators
The oscillators may be classified in the following different ways :
(1) According to the frequency generated
() Audio frequency (AF)
oscillators : Frequency range 20 Hz to 20 kHz
(11) Radio frequency (RF)
oscillators: 30 kHz to 30 MHz
(ii) Video oscillators : Upto 5 MHz
(iv) High frequency (HF) oscillators: 3 MHz to
30 MHz
(V) Very high frequency oscillators : 30 MHz
to 300 MHz
(vi) Ultra high frequency (UHF) and
MHz microwave oscillators - Above 300
(I) According to the design principle
i) Negative resistance oscillators using UJT or tunnel diode etc.
(ii) Positive feedback
oscillators : e.g. LC or RC oscillators.
(I) According to associated circuit or
(i) L-C oscillators
components
(ii) R-C oscillators
(iii) Crystal oscillators
(IV) According to the waveform generated
(i)) Sine wave (sinusoidal) oscillators : RC
oscillators, LC oscillators.
(ii)Relaxation (non-sinusoidal) oscillators :
Triangular, rectangular, sawtooth waveforms are produced using UJT
and other components.
5.4Feedback Oscillators

Amplifier
A

Feedback
Ve+
network
(B

Fig.5.1 : Block diagram of afeedback oscillator

 Oscillators 199

Inthe oscillators positive feedback is used. Types of feedback oscillators

are (i) RCoscillators, (ii) LC oscillators and (ii) crystal oscillators.
In Fig.(6:), block diagram of feedback oscillator is shown.
In case of positive feedback, the feedback voltage is in phase with the
input voltage. V, and V are added upto make V;
.. V;= V, +V,- V, + PV,'where Bis feedback factor.
A Vo
Gain of basic amplifier =
(Witt fectsa)
(without, feedback)
A

V,-ASV, =AV,
:v.(1- Ap)=AV,
Vo= Af A

1- Aß

Af is the gain of amplifier with feedback. Af is

Therefore, always greater than A.
positive feedback is obtained.
Requirements of an oscillator
Every oscillator consists of following three basic sections :
(1) Intenal or basic amplifier, (2)
positive
negative resistance effect and (3) amplitude limiting feedback
device.
network or
In the block diagram of oscillator
basic amplifier with positive
feedback isshown. The components used in the feedback
the frequency of oscillations.) In practical network determine
oscillators, the amplitude of
oscillations is limited by the non-linearity in operation of the active device
(transistor) used as amplifier.
Barkhausen criterion of oscillations :- This gives the condition under
which a feedback amplifier can work as an
positive feedback, the voltage gain is given oscillator.
by,
For an amplifier with

A
Af=
1- AB
 200 Electronics Paper II " Semiconductor Devices
where Af is the gain of amplifier with feedback, A is the gain of basic
amplifier without feedback and B is feedback factor. AB is known as loop

gain. If |AB = 1, Af =o. But Af= Therefore, as Af =0, even

when V,=0, output V,' can be obtained. Thus, when AB= 1, a feedback
amplifier can act as an oscillator. This is known as Barkhausen criterion.
Barkhausen criterion involves two conditions
1. |AB|1
2. Total phase shift introduced as the input signal travels from the input
terminal through the basic amplifier, feedback network back to the input
terminal should be zero or an integral multiple of 2n. This means that
feedback signal should be in phase with input signal.
Continuous oscillations are not produced if AB| < 1.
In a practical oscillator, loop gain Aß is kept slightly higher than one
and the amplitude of oscillations is limited by the non-linearity of active
device.

5.5 RC Oscillators
These oscillators use positive feedback. Two important types of RC
oscillators are : (1) RCphase shift oscillators and (2) Wien bridge oscillators.
5.5.1 Concept of phase-shift

H H
R1 R3
R2 Vo

Fig.5.2 : RC ladder network

When a sinusoidal voltage V, = Vm Sin wt is applied to the circuit
consisting of R, and C in series, the alternating current in the circuit leads
the applied voltage by an angle Ë which is given by,
tan 1 =
oR}Ci 2rfR}Ci
 andis network
which
amplifier. equal totalbe
section
201 the and in section V must
shown
is R, C of R-Cthe
This of usedR-C
of also Thus, amplifier
values as values
R-C (CE)are
1. 2n
f
R3C3 RE each
each
built RC are 180º.
each sections
emitter by
angleThe the resistors the
60. is oscillator by provided
is
if of +Vcc provided
an =
C,. section =Cand
phase-shift W common
R-C
of
networks
gain
by and, +
tan
all
V; R, fo R-C 2nfRC2) phase-shift
Three phase-shift
The
Ca phase-shift and
3R-C
leadsof frequency
3 = fos as
values zero.
consisting
of phase-shift.
works
by C oscillator by or
R, consisting
given = frequency RC
a
across for C, 180º. WW R
The
transistor
frequency,
equal provided
360°
network +
tan and feedback :
is is 5.3 is 1.thatA
so
that shift phase-shift
=Rfor phase-shift 180 networks, of
voltage network 2rfR|Cj Fig. circuit
are phase-shift
so
ladder phase that provides
oscillator 2rfRC particular
selected R capacitors
= selected ladder the
Alternatingladder R,
of total total RC R | in
phase-shift tan
= = amplifier =
tan a Total
For
Oscillators be Fig.(5.2), IfR, 5.5.2 this
called
phase-shift
sufficie
may aIf so then All values.
are Range| In 60°,
C 60, CE are
R is is
 202
Electronics Paper II " Semiconductor Devices
Then Barkhausen criterion is satisfied and sustained (continuous)
oscillations are produced.
1
The frequency of oscillation, fo =
2n fRCV6
At this frequency, the feedback façtor B = This means the gain
29
of the amplifier must be greater than 29.
Advantages - 1. The phase-shift oscillator is useful over a wide
frequency range, from a few Hz to several hundred kHz.
2. Large size inductors or transformers are not required.
3. In the low-frequency range large inductors required for LCoscillator
would be impractical. But frequencies as low as 1 Hz also can be easily
obtained by using R-C phase-shift oscillator.
Disadvantages - 1. Gain of transistor must be high to overcome losses
in the RC network.

2. The upper frequency is limited upto about 10 kHz because the

impedance of the RC network becomes so small that it loads the amplifier
heavily.
3. Frequency of oscillation cannot be varied easily since it is difficult to
vary three capacitors simultaneously.
weik 5.5.3 (Wien bridge oscillator : This is a type of R-C oscillator which
can generate frequencies in the range of 10 Hz to about 1 MHz. Generally
this type is used for audio frequencies. This oscillator consists of two stages
of RC-coupled amplifier and a feedback network. In Fig.(5.4) block diagram
of Wien-bridge oscillator is shown.
The circuit diagram of two-stage Wien-bridge oscillator is shown in
Fig.(5.5).
The bridge consists of (i) R and C in series, (ii) R and C in parallel,
(iiü) R, and (iv) Rz. Feedback is applied from the collector of Q, through
coupling capacitor C to the top of the bridge circuit. C, is large enough to
introduce no phase shift at lowest frequency of oscillation. R, serves the
dual purpose of emitter resistor of Q and an element of the bridge.
 Oscillators

R1
Amp. Amp.
Stage 1 Stage 2

R2

tFeedback network

Fig.S.4 : Block diagram of Wien bridge oscillator

HH
Ci
otVCc
R3 RsR1 R6 R8
HE CA
Q1 C3
Vo
R7 RÍ
ho R4

Fig.5.5 : Two stage Wien bridge oscillator

The frequency of the oscillator can be continuously changed by two
variable air capacitors C mounted on a common shaft. Different frequency
ranges can be provided by switching in different values för two identical
resistors R.
The two stage common emitter amplifier provides 360° phase shift as
each stage provides a phase-shift of 180°. A part of the output is fed back to
the input through a feedback network without producing any further phase
shift. This is the principle of Wien bridge oscillator. The upper frequency is
generally limited upto 100 kHz.
Frequency of oscillation,
1
f, =
2n4R,C,R,C,
As R = R = R amd C, = C, = C
 1
2nRC
1
To satisfy this condition., B must be . Therefore gain of amplifier
3
must be at least 3 to have AB 1.
Advantages - 1. This oscillator gives constant output.
2. The frequency can be changed easily.
Disadvantages 1. The upper frequency is limited by the amplitude
and phase-shift characteristics of the amplifier.
2. Large number of components are required.
5.6 Tank Circuit
The parallel combination of a charged capacitor (C) with an inductor
(L) is called 'tank circuit. Tank circuit is an essential part of LC oscillators.
A fully charged capacitor C is connected in parallel with inductance L
as shown in Fig.(5.6)(a).
The energy is stored in electrostatic field of capacitor.
1
Now the capacitor discharges through L. After 4 th cycle (90), energy
is stored in magnetic field ofLas shown in fig.(b). After next 14 th cycle,
the induced magnetic field begins to collapse sending electric curent and C
1
gets charged in opposite polarity as shown in Fig.(c). After next 4 th cycle,
again C discharges in the reverse direction. Therefore, energy is stored in
magnetic field of L in opposite direction as shown in Fig.(d). After next 90,
energy is again stored in electrostatic field of capacitor as shown in Fig.(a).
Thus, charging and discharging of capacitor produces oscillations. The
frequency of oscillations is given by,
1
f, =:
2ryLC
If there is no power loss in the circuit, sustained oscillations are
produced at the frequency given by above equation. But in practice (1) there
is some power loss during each oscillation as some resistance is always
associated with LC circuit. Hence energy is dissipated as heat. (2) Some part
of energy is used in the generation of electromagnetic waves, if the frequency
is high. Due to such power losses, damped oscillations are produced.
 205
Oscillators

SOOO00L
L

(a) Tank circuit (b)

C L

(c) (d)
Fig.5.6 : Action of tank circuit
To obtain sustained oscillations, energy must be supplied to the L-C
circuit at the same rate at which it is dissipated. In an oscillator, the
transistor and the power supply feed energy to the circuit to overcome the
losses.

Energy in L

Energy in C
Energy b le t

Fig.5.7 : Sustained oscillations

Energy t’

Fig.5.8 : Damped oscillations

 Colpitt's twopointdescribedC collector
iscomponent
divider. theprovide
prevents transistor are as between
transient
produced input
voltage. in
amplifier.
and prevents But is circuit.
using
desired the signal
o/p L, Ly.
(2) voltage fromIt R given,
a 180° output
large,
and of
any
L1, choke.
alsoand and toback emitter feedbacktank
Instead of path of
oscillations
C, isthe the
oscillator and awithconsisting it
is L, difference
fed
ac frequency
and
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voltage. is common in
voltage
across theis produce
L used.used self-bias
oscillators each providesVoc
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damped
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Hartley be input phaseL
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voltage supply zero.
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Hartleycoilfunction of is of are
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blocks supply
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are +Vçc RE
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grounded,transistor
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oscillator
Hartley
5.7.1 L, grounded. capacitor. the 180°
is
RI R2 Ry C the signal.
(contin
oscillator
and frequency.
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in
the This L. phase-shift
5.7
Oscillators
L-C , tank that is and of
R C -
W hen L,
L-C from class the phase-shift
input
of
H L resistors
be
inductors
Hartleymay
bypass the so
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on C; of RF in
Oscillators 207

Frequency of oscillations is f, -
2nVLC
where L = L + L
Advantages : 1. The frequency of oscillations may be varied easily by
using variable capacitor.
2. Hartley oscillator may be used as local oscillator in radio receiver to
provide RF output.
3.Instead of two separate coils L and L, a single coil may be used and
any desired point on the coil may be grounded.
4. Hartley oscillator may be used in high frequency heaters.
5.7.2 Colpitt's oscillator

RFC
R1
HC4
C
R2 ofp
RE
CE

feedback path
Fig.5.10 : Colpitt's oscillator
The circuit of Colpitt's oscillator is similar to that of Hartley oscillator.
In the tank circuit instead of using two coils L and L, two
variable
capacitors C and C are connected in series. These capacitors are
connected in parallel with coil L. Frequency of oscillation may be varied by
gang-tuning the two capacitors C and C
The functions of different components are similar to those in Hartley
oscillator. Common emitter amplifier provides a phase-shift of 180°. Another
phase-shift of 180° is provided by the tank circuit. Thus, total phase shift is
360° or zero between the feedback signal developed across C, and the input
signal. The input signal is initially developed due to the transient current
produced, when the power supply is switched on.
208
Electronics Paper II Semiconductor Devices
The frequency of oscillation is given by
1
f, =

where C = CC,
C+C,
The oscillations are sustained if AB> 1
Advantages - 1. Colpitt's oscillator can be used in commercial signal
generators for producing frequencies above 1 MHz.
2. It can be used in radio and TV
receivers as local oscillator.
3. It can be used in high frequency
heaters.

Solved Problems
Problem 1: Find the frequency of R-C phase-shift oscillator if R is
1Sk2 and C is 1microfarad.
Solution: In a R-C phase-shift oscillator

2nRCV6
1

2x 3.14 x 15 x 10 x1 x106
1
4.33 Hz
0.2307
Problem 2: In a Wien-bridge oscillator if R= 100 kSN and 250 pF,
find frequency of oscillation.
Solution : In a Wien-bridge oscillator
f, =
2TRC
1
2x 3.14 x 100 >x 10 x 250 x 10-2

= 6369.4Hz = 6.369 kHz

Oscillators 209

Problem 3: For aColpitt's oscillator frequency of oscillation is 10 kHz

and C, - C, =8 uF. Find the value of inductor used in the feedback circuit.
Solution : In a Colpitt's oscillator, frequency of oscillation is given by
1
f, =
2nLC
where C= CC;
C+C,
.:. L=
(2roj'.c
Here fo = 10kHz =10 x 10³Hz
C =C, =8 uF = 8 x 106 F
8 x 10-6 x8 x 10-6
C= = 4 x10
C+C2 (8+8) x10-6
1
:.L=
2

(2 x3.14 x10 x10) x 4 x 10-6

1
= 63.38 x 10-°H
15775.3
.Inductor used in feedback circuit = 63.38 uH.
Problem 4: A Hartley oscillator circuit uses following components in
its tuned circuit : C =200 pF, L = 25 mH, L, =10 mH. Calculate the
frequency of oscillation.
Solution : In a Hartley oscillator,
1
fo = where L= Ly +L
2ryLC
1

2x 3.14|(25 +10)× 10 x200 x1012

= 60240.9 Hz
.. fo 1.66x 10-5
= 60.241 kHz
XIElectronics 14
210 Electronics Paper II "Semiconductor Devices

Summary
An oscillator is an electronic circuit which generates an ac output
signal without requiring any externally applied input signal. Positive
feedback or negative resistance property can be used in oscillators.
Barkhausen criterion must be satisfied to generate continuous (sustained)
oscillations. Aß=1 and feedback signal must be in phase with inpu!
signal.
Three RC sections called as ladder networks are used in RC phase shift
oscillators. Each ladder network produces a phase-shift of 60° at the
frequency of oscillation. In Wien-bridge oscillator instead of RC network,
two stages of CE amplifier are used to provide total phase-shift of 360.
The parallel combination of a charged capacitor with an inductor is
called tank circuit. Hartley and Colpitt's oscillators can be used to produce
oscillations in RF range.

Questions
1. Select correct alternatives and rewrite -
()) Oscillator is an electronic device which converts
(a) dc to ac, (b) ac to dc, (c) ac to ac
(ii) If Barkhausen criterion is not fulfilled by an oscillator circuit, it
will

(a) produce damped oscillations, (b) produce sustained oscillations,

(c) convert ac to dc.
(ii) A Hartley oscillator uses....
(a) tapped coils, (b) tapped capacitors, (c) ladder network.
(iv) In Wien-bridge oscillator phase-shift is produced by.....
(a) two stages of CE amplifie, (b) tank circuit, (c) ladder network.
(v) ...property is used in UJT Oscillator.
(a) positive feedback, (b) negative resistance, (c) rectification.
(vi) To generate a 1-MHz signal, the most suitable circuit is....s.cillator.
(a) Wien bridge, (b) Colpitt's, (c) Phase-shift
(vikThe frequency of oscillation remains very stable in...oscillator.

(a) Crystal, (b)Hartley, (c) Colpitt's

 Oscillators 211
(viii) In R-C phase shift oscillator ladder network consists
sections.
of...RC
(a) one, (b) two, (c) three
2. Define an
oscillator. What are the differences between an oscillator
and an amplifier ?
3. State any six uses of oscillators.
4. Write the classification of oscillators.
5. Draw block diagram of feedback oscillator and obtain an
equation
for its gain with feedback.
6. What are the requirements of an oscillator ?
7. Explain the conditions necessary to produce sustained oscillations.
8. Explain Barkhausen criterion.
9. Explain the concept of phase-shift in RCladder network.
10. Draw circuit diagram of RC phaseshift oscillator. Explain its
working and write the equation for its frequency of oscillation.
11. Write a note on Wien bridge oscillator.
12. Explain the acticn of tank circuit. OR
Explain how continuous electrical oscillations are produced in the tank
circuit.
13. Draw the circuit diagram of Hartley oscillator. Explain its working
and state the formula for frequency of oscillation.
14. Draw the circuit diagram of Colpit's oscillator. Explain its
working.
15. State the advantages and disadvantages of RC phase-shift oscillator
and Wien bridge oscillator.

Problems for Practice

at 1 kHz. If
1. A RC phase-shift oscillator is required to provide signal
assuming
the value of resistor R = 4 k2, determine the value of capacitance,
all sections to be identical.
(Ans. : 0.016 uF).

Hartley oscillator uses following components in its tuned circuit :

2. A
Calculate the frequency of oscillation.
C= 100 pF, L = 30 mH, L, = 10mH. (Ans. : 79.6 kHz)