MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION

CULTURE & SCIENCE CITY

HIGH INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER
SCIENCE

Lecturer Notes in

Introduction to Computer
Science

Prepared by

Dr. Ahmed Gaber

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 BASICS OF COMPUTERS

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Input-Process-Output Model
1.3 Characteristics of Computers
1.4 Types of Computers
1.5 Generations of Computers
1.6 Activity Conclusion
CHAPTER 2 TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEMS
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Decimal Number System
2.2 Binary Number System
2.3 Octal Number System
2.4 Hexadecimal Number System
2.5 Conversion of Number Systems
CHAPTER 3 THE INTERNET
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Unit Goals
3.2 Origin of the Internet
3.3 Application or Purposes of the Internet
3.4 Activity Conclusion
3.5 Search Engines
3.6 Trends in Internet Use
CHAPTER 4 INTRODUCTION TO APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Software Development
4.3 Applications Software
4.4 Nature and Types of Software Packages
4.4.1 Basic Software
4.4.2 Word Processing Software
4.4.3 Database Management Systems
4.4.4 Text Retrieval Packages
4.4.5 Software for Searching Online Retrieval Systems
4.4.6 Library House Keeping Software
4.5 Why Use a Software Package?
4.6 Summary
4.7 Answers to Self-Check Exercises
4.8 Key Words
4.9 References and Further Reading
4.0 OBJECTIVES
CHAPTER 5 BRANCHES OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
5.1 Computer Programming
5.2 Computer Networks
5.3 Computer Graphics
5.4 System Analysis and Design
CHAPTER 6 INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEMS
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Definition
6.2 Functions of OS
6.3 Processor Management
6.3 Device Management
6.4 File Management
6.5 Other Important Activities
6.6 Types of Operating Systems
6.6.1. Batch OS
6.6.2. Time-sharing or multitasking OS
6.6.3. Distributed OS
6.6.4. Network OS
6.6.5. Real-time OS
6.6.6. Mobile OS
6.7 History of Operating system
6.8 Frequently asked questions
 Chapter 1
Basics of Computers

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1.1 Introduction
Being a modern-day kid you must have used, seen, or read about computers.
This is because they are an integral part of our everyday existence. Be it
school, banks, shops, railway stations, hospital or your own home, computers
are present everywhere, making our work easier and faster for us. As they are
such integral parts of our lives, we must know what they are and how they
function. Let us start with defining the term computer formally.

The literal meaning of computer is a device that can calculate. However,

modern computers can do a lot more than calculate. Computer is an
electronic device that receives input, stores or processes the input as per user
instructions and provides output in desired format.

What is a Computer?

A computer is a device that accepts information (in the form of digitalized

data) and manipulates it for some result based on a program, software, or
sequence of instructions on how the data is to be processed.

A computer is a machine that can store and process information. Most

computers rely on a binary system, which uses two variables, 0 and 1, to
complete tasks such as storing data, calculating algorithms, and displaying
information.

1.2 Input-Process-Output Model

The following are components of a computer system are composed of:

A. Memory or Primary Memory: enables a computer to store data or

information and programs temporarily.

B. Secondary or Mass storage device: enables a computer to permanently

store large amounts of data. Commonly used mass storage devices include
disk drives and tape drives.

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Input device: users interact with a computer using input devices. Input
devices usually a keyboard and mouse are used by a user in order to provide
instructions to a computer.

Example of Input Devices; Keyboard, Mouse (pointing device), Microphone,

Touch screen, Scanner, Webcam, Touchpads, MIDI keyboard, Graphics
Tablets, Cameras, Pen Input, Video Capture Hardware, Trackballs, Barcode
reader, Digital camera, Joystick, Gamepad, Electronic Whiteboard.

Computer input is called data and the output obtained after processing it,
based on user’s instructions is called information. Raw facts and figures
which can be processed using arithmetic and logical operations to obtain
information are called data.

The processes that can be applied to data are of two types −

 Arithmetic operations − Examples include calculations like addition,
subtraction, differentials, square root, etc.
 Logical operations − Examples include comparison operations like
greater than, less than, equal to, opposite, etc.

Output device: computer uses a screen or monitor, printer (all types),

Plotters, Computer Output Microfilm (COM), Speaker(s), Projector, or other
device to display outputs.

Central processing unit (CPU) known as microprocessor or processor is

the brain of the computer, this is the component responsible for executing
instructions. The CPU is comprised of three main parts:

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) that carries out arithmetic and logic operations
on the operands in computer instruction words.

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Control Unit (CU): controls and co-ordinates computer components.

 Read the code for the next instruction to be executed.

 Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
 Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory.
 Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
 If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete,
instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.

 Memory − All input data, instructions and data interim to the processes
are stored in the memory. Memory is of two types – primary
memory and secondary memory. Primary memory resides within the
CPU whereas secondary memory is external to it.
 Registers: Stores the data that is to be executed next.

Fig 1.1 Block diagram of computer units

1.3 Characteristics of Computers

The characteristics of a computer show the capability and the potential of

the computer for processing data. This saves time, space, money, labors etc.
And they answer the questions like why computers are used and why have
they become so popular? The following are items that characterize a
computer:

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• SPEED: In general, no human being or any other device can compete to
solve complex computation, faster than computer.

• ACCURACY: Since the Computer is programmed, so whatever input we

give it, it gives result with high degree of accuracy. In other words, it does
computation with high precision.

• STORAGE: Computer has the capacity to store mass volume of data with
appropriate format.

• DILIGENCE: Computer never feels bored and it can work for hours and
hours without any break and creating error.

• VERSATILITY: Computers are multipurpose. A Computer can perform

completely different types of work at the same time.

• POWER OF REMEMBERING: It stores data for future use.

• NO IQ: Computer needs to be instructed to do its job.

• NO FEELING: Computer does not have emotions, knowledge, experience

and feeling.

Advantages of Using Computer

Now that we know the characteristics of computers, we can see the advantages
that computers offer−
 Computers can do the same task repetitively with same accuracy.
 Computers do not get tired or bored.
 Computers can take up routine tasks while releasing human resource for
more intelligent functions.

Disadvantages of Using Computer

Despite so many advantages, computers have some disadvantages of their

own −
 Computers have no intelligence; they follow the instructions blindly
without considering the outcome.

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  Regular electric supply is necessary to make computers work,
which could prove difficult everywhere especially in developing
nations.

Booting

Starting a computer or a computer-embedded device is called booting.

Booting takes place in two steps −
 Switching on power supply
 Loading operating system into computer’s main memory
 Keeping all applications in a state of readiness in case needed by the
user
The first program or set of instructions that run when the computer is switched
on is called BIOS or Basic Input Output System. BIOS is a firmware, i.e.
a piece of software permanently programmed into the hardware.
If a system is already running but needs to be restarted, it is called rebooting.
Rebooting may be required if a software or hardware has been installed or
system is unusually slow.
There are two types of booting −
 Cold Booting − When the system is started by switching on the power
supply it is called cold booting. The next step in cold booting is loading
of BIOS.
 Warm Booting − When the system is already running and needs to be
restarted or rebooted, it is called warm booting. Warm booting is faster
than cold booting because BIOS is not reloaded.
1.4 Types of Computers:

Computers are of various types and they can be categorized in two ways on
the basis of size and on the basis of data handling capabilities.

So, on the basis of size, there are five types of computers:

1. Supercomputer

2. Mainframe computer
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 3. Minicomputer

4. Workstation

5. PC (Personal Computer)

And on the basis of data handling capabilities, there are three types of
computer:

1. Analogue Computer

2. Digital Computer

3. Hybrid Computer

Now let us discuss each type of computer in detail:

1. Supercomputer:

When we talk about speed, then the first name that comes to mind when
thinking of computers is supercomputers. They are the biggest and fastest
computers (in terms of speed of processing data). Supercomputers are
designed such that they can process a huge amount of data, like processing
trillions of instructions or data just in a second. This is because of the
thousands of interconnected processors in supercomputers. It is basically used
in scientific and engineering applications such as weather forecasting,
scientific simulations, and nuclear energy research. It was first developed by
Roger Cray in 1976.

Characteristics of supercomputers:

 Supercomputers are the computers which are the fastest and they are
also very expensive.

 It can calculate up to ten trillion individual calculations per second, this

is also the reason which makes it even more faster.

 It is used in the stock market or big organizations for managing the

online currency world such as bit coin etc.

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  It is used in scientific research areas for analyzing data obtained from
exploring the solar system, satellites, etc.

2. Mainframe computer:

Mainframe computers are designed in such a way that it can support hundreds
or thousands of users at the same time. It also supports multiple programs
simultaneously. So, they can execute different processes simultaneously. All
these features make the mainframe computer ideal for big organizations like
banking, telecom sectors, etc., which process a high volume of data in general.

Characteristics of mainframe computers:

 It is also an expensive or costly computer.

 It has high storage capacity and great performance.

 It can process a huge amount of data (like data involved in the banking
sector) very quickly.

 It runs smoothly for a long time and has a long life.

3. Minicomputer:

Minicomputer is a medium size multiprocessing computer. In this type of

computer, there are two or more processors, and it supports 4 to 200 users at
one time. Minicomputers are used in places like institutes or departments for
different work like billing, accounting, inventory management etc. It is
smaller than a mainframe computer but larger in comparison to the
microcomputer.

Characteristics of minicomputer:

 Its weight is low.

 Because of its low weight, it is easy to carry anywhere.

 Less expensive than a mainframe computer.

 It is fast.

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4. Workstation:

Workstation is designed for technical or scientific applications. It consists of

a fast microprocessor, with a large amount of RAM and high speed graphic
adapter. It is a single-user computer. It generally used to perform a specific
task with great accuracy.

Characteristics of Workstation:

 It is expensive or high in cost.

 They are exclusively made for complex work purposes.

 It provides large storage capacity, with better graphics, and a more

powerful CPU when compared to a PC.

 It is also used to handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video
creation, and editing.

5. PC (Personal Computer):

It is also known as a microcomputer. It is basically a general-purpose

computer and designed for individual use. It consists of a microprocessor as a
central processing unit (CPU), memory, input unit, and output unit. This kind
of computer is suitable for personal work such as making an assignment,
watching a movie, or at office for office work, etc. For example, Laptops and
desktop computers.

Characteristics of PC (Personal Computer):

 In this limited number of software can be used.

 It is smallest in size.

 It is designed for personal use.

 It is easy to use.

6. Analogue Computer:

It is particularly designed to process analogue data. Continuous data that

changes continuously and cannot have discrete values is called analogue data.
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So, an analogue computer is used where we don’t need exact values or need
approximate values such as speed, temperature, pressure etc. It can directly
accept the data from the measuring device without first converting it into
numbers and codes. It measures the continuous changes in physical quantity.
It gives output as a reading on a dial or scale. For example thermometer,
voltmeter, speedometer, etc.

7. Digital Computer:

Digital computers are designed in such a way that it can easily perform
calculations and logical operations at high speed. It takes raw data as an input
and processes it with programs stored in its memory to produce the final
output. It only understands the binary input 0 and 1, so the raw input data is
converted to 0 and 1 by the computer and then it is processed by the computer
to produce the result or final output. All modern computers, like laptops,
desktops including smartphones are digital computers.

8. Hybrid Computer:

As the name suggests hybrid, which means made by combining two different
things. Similarly, the hybrid computer is a combination of both analog and
digital computers. Hybrid computers are fast like an analog computer and
have memory, and accuracy like a digital computer. So, it has the ability to
process both continuous and discrete data. For working when it accepts analog
signals as input then it converts them into digital form before processing the
input data. So, it is widely used in specialized applications where both analog
and digital data is required to be processed. A processor which is used in petrol
pumps that converts the measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price is
an example of a hybrid computer.
Question 1. On the basis of data handling capabilities, how many computers are
there?

(A) 5
(B) 3
(C) 2
(D) None of the above
The correct option is B i.e., 3

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On the basis of data handling capabilities, there are three types of computer which are
Analogue Computer, Digital Computer, Hybrid Computer.

Q 2. Which computer can deal with analogue data?

(A) Analogue Computer

(B) Digital Computer
(C) both a and b
(D) None of the above
Solution: The correct option is A, i.e., Analogue computer

Analogue computer is particularly designed to process analogue data. A continuous data

that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values is called Analogue data.

Q 3. __________ is also known as a Microcomputer.

(A) Supercomputer
(B) Minicomputer
(C) Workstation
(D) Personal computer
Solution: The correct option is D, i.e., Personal computer

Q 4. Which type of computer has two or more processors and it supports 4 to 200
users at one time.

(A) Minicomputer
(B) Personal computer
(C) Analogue computer
(D) All of the above
Solution: The correct option is A, i.e., Minicomputer

Minicomputer is a medium sized multiprocessing computer. In this type of computer,

there are two or more processors and it supports 4 to 200 users at one time.

Q 5. All modern computers, like laptops, desktops including smartphones, are

______________computers.

(A) Hybrid
(B) Analogue
(C) Digital
(D) Supercomputer
Solution: The correct option is C, i.e., digital

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 Assessment: Reflective Activities

Define the term computer in your own terms?

What are the characteristics of computers?
How are computers classified?

Answers

• A computer is an electronic device that accepts inputs, processes the input based on an
algorithm and finally produces an output.

• Diligent, multitasking, highly accurate, store their own instruction, etc

• Computers can be classified based on size, electronic components used for their
development, method of operations, their purpose of use and computing capacity.

1.5 Generations of Computers

Although computer professionals do not agree on exact dates or specifics,

computer developments are often categorized by generations. Actually there
are four generations and major characteristics that distinguish these
generations are the following;

• Dominant type of electronic circuit elements used.

• Major secondary storage media used.

• Computer language used.

• Types or characteristic of operating system used.

• Memory access time (time to store or retrieve a word or data from

memory).

Computer generations are usually categorized by dramatic improvement in

the hardware, typically refold or better increases in speed and reliability.

A. First generation (1950s)

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  Used vacuum tubes as components for the electronic circuit.
 Punched cards were the main source of inputs, and magnetic grams
were used for internal storage.
 Operate in a speed of milliseconds (thousandths of a second) and
could handle more than 10,000 additions each second.
 Most applications were scientific calculations.

B. Second generations (early 1960s)

 Transistors were the main circuit components. (Transistors are a solid

state device made from silicon which is smaller, cheaper, faster,
dissipate less energy and more reliable than vacuum tube but work in
the same way with the vacuum tube.)
 Invented by Bell Labs.
 Magnetic tapes (similar with music tape caste), used for main storage,
 Operate in microseconds (millionths of a second) with more than
200,000 additions possible each second.
 Business applications become more commonplace, with large data
files stored on magnetic tape and disk. (Magnetic disk: is a circular
platter constructed of metal or plastic materials coated with
magnetizable substance.)
 High-level languages COBOL and FORTRAN were introduced
during this period. Batch operating systems are used that permitted
rapid processing of magnetic tape files.

C. Third generation (late 1960s, early 1970s

Characterized by solid-state logic and integrated circuit (IC). (A single, self-

contained transistor is called discrete component. In early 1960 electronic
equipment composed of discrete components transistors, capacitors,
resistors, were available:

 Computer storage switched from magnetic cores to integrated circuit

boards that provide modularity (expandable storage) and compatibility
(interchangeable equipment)
 New input/output methods such as optical scanning and plotters.

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  Software become more important with sophisticated operating
systems, and improved programming languages.

D. Fourth generation (late 1970s, early 1989s,)

 Greatly expanded storage capabilities and improved circuitry.

 Has a large-scale integrated circuits (LSI) which has several hundred
thousand t
 Computer memory operates at speeds of nano seconds (billionths of a
second) with large computers capable of adding 15 million numbers
per second.

E. Fifth generation

The fifth generation computer development is still in progress. An

architecture, which makes use of the changes in technology and allows a
simple and natural methodology for solving problems, is being sought. These
computers will have intelligent processors i.e., processors which can draw
inferences. Users will also be able to interact with them in natural languages
such as in plain English or a particular language of choice.

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 1.6 Activity Conclusion

The task of entering and altering programs for the ENIAC was
extremely tedious. The limitations of early days computers were successfully
addressed through the Von Neumann architecture which you will learn in the
next unit. Computers evolution is grouped into four generations with each
generation characterized by the dominant electronic component used, the type
of programming language as well as the type of operating systems used.
Transistors placed on one tiny silicon chip.
Assessment: Reflective Activities

a. What was the type of electronic component used in the second generation of
computers?

b. What type of operating system was used in the first generation of computers?

c. The type of operating system used in the third generation was a time sharing one, what
does time sharing mean?

Answers
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a. Vacuum tube

b. There was no notion of operating system then, it was programmer who also assumes
the role of operating system by connecting or disconnecting wires

c. Time sharing operating systems are systems that enables program share the computer
resources including the CPU based on a scheduled time.

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 Chapter 2
Types of Number
Systems

17
2.0 Introduction

Based on the base value and the number of allowed digits, number systems
are of many types. The four common types of Number System are:
1. Decimal Number System
2. Binary Number System
3. Octal Number System
4. Hexadecimal Number System

2.1 Decimal Number System

Number system with base value 10 is termed as Decimal number system. It

uses 10 digits i.e. 0-9 for the creation of numbers. Here, each digit in the
number is at a specific place with place value a product of different powers
of 10. Here, the place value is termed from right to left as first place value
called units, second to the left as Tens, so on Hundreds, Thousands, etc.
Here, units has the place value as 10 0, tens has the place value as 101,
hundreds as 102, thousands as 103, and so on.

For example: 10285 has place values as

(1 × 104) + (0 × 103) + (2 × 102) + (8 × 101) + (5 × 100)

1 × 10000 + 0 × 1000 + 2 × 100 + 8 × 10 + 5 × 1
10000 + 0 + 200 + 80 + 5
10285

2.2 Binary Number System

Number System with base value 2 is termed as Binary number system. It

uses 2 digits i.e. 0 and 1 for the creation of numbers. The numbers formed
using these two digits are termed as Binary Numbers. Binary number system
is very useful in electronic devices and computer systems because it can be
easily performed using just two states ON and OFF i.e. 0 and 1.
Decimal Numbers 0-9 are represented in binary as: 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101,
110, 111, 1000, and 1001
Examples:

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14 can be written as 1110
19 can be written as 10011
50 can be written as 110010
2.3 Octal Number System

Octal Number System is one in which the base value is 8. It uses 8 digits i.e.
0-7 for creation of Octal Numbers. Octal Numbers can be converted to
Decimal value by multiplying each digit with the place value and then adding
the result. Here the place values are 80, 81, and 82. Octal Numbers are useful
for the representation of UTF8 Numbers.
Example:

(135)10 can be written as (207)8

(215)10 can be written as (327)8
2.4 Hexadecimal Number System

Number System with base value 16 is termed as Hexadecimal Number

System. It uses 16 digits for the creation of its numbers. Digits from 0-9 are
taken like the digits in the decimal number system but the digits from 10-15
are represented as A-F i.e. 10 is represented as A, 11 as B, 12 as C, 13 as D,
14 as E, and 15 as F. Hexadecimal Numbers are useful for handling memory
address locations.

Examples:

(255)10 can be written as (FF)16

(1096)10 can be written as (448)16
(4090)10 can be written as (FFA)16
2.5 Conversion of Number Systems

Conversion between numbers systems is quite an easy task. Any number

from any number system can be converted to other number systems with the
help of certain methods that will be discussed below:

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1. Conversion from Decimal Number System to Other Number Systems

Decimal Numbers are represented with digits 0-9 and with base 10.
Conversion of a number system means conversion from one base to another.
Following are the conversion of the Decimal Number System to other
Number Systems:

A. Decimal to Binary Conversion:

Decimal numbers are represented in base 10, but the binary numbers are of
base 2. Hence, to convert a decimal number to binary number, the base of
that number is to be changed. Follow the steps given below:
 Step 1: Divide the Decimal Number with the base of the number system
to be converted to. Here the conversion is to binary, hence the divisor will
be 2.
 Step 2: The remainder obtained from the division will become the least
significant digit of the new number.
 Step 3: The quotient obtained from the division will become the next
dividend and will be divided by base i.e. 2.
 Step 4: The remainder obtained will become the second least significant
digit i.e. it will be added in the left of the previously obtained digit.
Now, the steps 3 and 4 are repeated until the quotient obtained becomes 0,
and the remainders obtained after each iteration are added to the left of the
existing digits.
After all the iterations are over, the last obtained remainder will be termed
as the Most Significant digit.

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B. Decimal to Octal Conversion:

Octal Numbers are represented in base 8. Hence, to convert a decimal

number to octal number, the base of that number is to be changed. Follow
the steps given below:
 Step 1: Divide the Decimal Number with the base of the number
system to be converted to. Here the conversion is to octal, hence the
divisor will be 8.
 Step 2: The remainder obtained from the division will become the
least significant digit of the new number.
 Step 3: The quotient obtained from the division will become the next
dividend and will be divided by base i.e. 8.
 Step 4: The remainder obtained will become the second least
significant digit i.e. it will be added in the left of the previously
obtained digit.
Now, the steps 3 and 4 are repeated until the quotient obtained becomes
0, and the remainders obtained after each iteration are added to the left of
the existing digits.

C. Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion:

Hexadecimal Numbers are represented in base 16. Hence, to convert a

decimal number to hexadecimal number, the base of that number is to be
changed. Follow the steps given below:
 Step 1: Divide the Decimal Number with the base of the number
system to be converted to. Here the conversion is to Hex hence the
divisor will be 16.
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 Step 2: The remainder obtained from the division will become the
least significant digit of the new number.
 Step 3: The quotient obtained from the division will become the next
dividend and will be divided by base i.e. 16.
 Step 4: The remainder obtained will become the second least
significant digit i.e. it will be added in the left of the previously
obtained digit.
Now, the steps 3 and 4 are repeated until the quotient obtained becomes
0, and the remainders obtained after each iteration are added to the left of
the existing digits.

2. Conversion from Binary Number System to Other Number

Systems

Binary Numbers are represented with digits 0 and 1 and with base 2.
Conversion of a number system means conversion from one base to
another. Following are the conversion of the Binary Number System to
other Number Systems:

A. Binary to Decimal Conversion:

Binary numbers are represented in base 2 but the decimal numbers are of
base 10. Hence, to convert the binary number into a decimal number, the
base of that number is to be changed. Follow the steps given below:
 Step 1: Multiply each digit of the Binary number with the place value
of that digit, starting from right to left i.e. from LSB to MSB.
 Step 2: Add the result of this multiplication and the decimal number
will be formed.

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Example: To convert (11101011)2 into a decimal number

B. Binary to Octal Conversion:

Binary numbers are represented in base 2 but the octal numbers are of
base 8. Hence, to convert the binary number into octal number, the base
of that number is to be changed. Follow the steps given below:
 Step 1: Divide the binary number into groups of three digits starting
from right to left i.e. from LSB to MSB.
 Step 2: Convert these groups into equivalent octal digits.
Example: To convert (11101011)2 into an octal number

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C. Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion:

Binary numbers are represented in base 2 but the Hexadecimal numbers

are of base 10. Hence, to convert the binary number into Hex number, the
base of that number is to be changed. Follow the steps given below:
 Step 1: Divide the binary number into groups of four digits starting
from right to left i.e. from LSB to MSB.
 Step 2: Convert these groups into equivalent hex digits.
Example: To convert (1110101101101)2 into a hex number

3. Conversion from Octal Number System to Other Number Systems

Octal Numbers are represented with digits 0-7 and with base 8.
Conversion of a number system means conversion from one base to
another. Following are the conversions of the Octal Number System to
other Number Systems:

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A. Octal to Decimal Conversion:

Octal numbers are represented in base 8, but the decimal numbers are of
base 10. Hence, to convert an octal number to a decimal number, the base
of that number is to be changed. Follow the steps given below:
 Step 1: Multiply each digit of the octal number with the place value
of that digit, starting from right to left i.e. from LSB to MSB.
 Step 2: Add the result of this multiplication and the decimal number
will be formed.
Example:

B. Octal to Binary Conversion:

Octal numbers are represented in base 8, but the binary numbers are of
base 2. Hence, to convert an octal number to a binary number, the base
of that number is to be changed. Follow the steps given below:
 Step 1: Write each digit of the octal number separately.
 Step 2: Convert each digit into an equivalent group of three binary
digits.
 Step 3: Combine these groups to form the whole binary number.
Example: (247)8 is to be converted to binary

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C. Octal to Hexadecimal Conversion:

Octal numbers are represented in base 8, but the hexadecimal numbers

are of base 16. Hence, to convert an octal number to a hex number, the
base of that number is to be changed. Follow the steps given below:
 Step 1: We need to convert the octal number to Binary first. For that,
follow the steps given in the above conversion.
 Step 2: Now to convert the binary number to Hex number, divide the
binary digits into groups of four digits starting from right to left i.e.
from LSB to MSB.
 Step 3: Add zeros prior to MSB to make it a proper group of four
digits(if required)
 Step 4: Now convert these groups into their relevant decimal values.
 Step 5: For values from 10-15, convert it into Hex symbols i.e from
A-F
Example: (5456)8 is to be converted to hex

26
4. Conversion from Hexadecimal Number System to Other Number
Systems

Hex Numbers are represented with digits 0-9 and with letters A-F and
with base 16. Conversion of a number system means conversion from one
base to another. Following are the conversions of the Hexadecimal
Number System to other Number Systems:

A. Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion:

Hexadecimal numbers are represented in base 16 but the decimal numbers

are of base 10. Hence, to convert a hexadecimal number to a decimal
number, the base of that number is to be changed. Follow the steps given
below:
 Step 1: Write the decimal values of the symbols used in the Hex
number i.e. from A-F
 Step 2: Multiply each digit of the Hex number with its place value.
Starting from right to left i.e. LSB to MSB.

27
 Step 3: Add the result of multiplications and the final sum will be the
decimal number.
Example: To convert (8EB4)16 into a decimal value

B. Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion:

Hex numbers are represented in base 16, but the binary numbers are of
base 2. Hence, to convert a hexadecimal number to a binary number, the
base of that number is to be changed. Follow the steps given below:
 Step 1: Convert the Hex symbols into its equivalent decimal values.
 Step 2: Write each digit of the Hexadecimal number separately.
 Step 3: Convert each digit into an equivalent group of four binary
digits.
 Step 4: Combine these groups to form the whole binary number.

Example: (B2E)16 is to be converted to binary

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C. Hexadecimal to Octal Conversion:

Hexadecimal numbers are represented in base 16, but the octal numbers
are of base 8. Hence, to convert a hex number to an octal number, the
base of that number is to be changed. Follow the steps given below:
 Step 1: We need to convert the Hexadecimal number to Binary first.
For that, follow the steps given in the above conversion.
 Step 2: Now to convert the binary number to octal number, divide the
binary digits into groups of three digits starting from right to left i.e.
from LSB to MSB.
 Step 3: Add zeros prior to MSB to make it a proper group of three
digits(if required)
 Step 4: Now convert these groups into their relevant decimal values.

Example: (B2E)16 is to be converted to hex

29
Binary Number System
Descriptions of binary number system:

o Uses two digits, 0 and 1; and

o It is also called Base 2.

The easiest way to vary instructions through electric signals is two-state

system – on and off. On is represented as 1 and off as 0, though 0 is not
actually no signal but signal at a lower voltage. The number system having
just these two digits – 0 and 1 – is called binary number system.

Each binary digit is also called a bit. Binary number system is also positional
value system, where each digit has a value expressed in powers of 2, as
displayed here.

30
n any binary number, the rightmost digit is called least significant bit
(LSB) and leftmost digit is called most significant bit (MSB).

And decimal equivalent of this number is sum of product of each digit with
its positional value.
(11010)2 = 1×24 + 1×23 + 0×22 + 1×21 + 0×20
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0
= (26)10

Computer memory is measured in terms of how many bits it can store. Here
is a chart for memory capacity conversion.

1 byte (B) = 8 bits

1 Kilobytes (KB) = 1024 bytes

1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB

1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 MB

1 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 GB

1 Exabyte (EB) = 1024 PB

1 Zettabyte = 1024 EB

1 Yottabyte (YB) = 1024 ZB

31
Octal Number System
Octal number system has eight digits – 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Octal number
system is also a positional value system with where each digit has its value
expressed in powers of 8, as shown here −

Decimal equivalent of any octal number is sum of product of each digit with its positional value.

(726)8 = 7×82 + 2×81 + 6×80

= 448 + 16 + 6

= (470)10

Hexadecimal Number System

Octal number system has 16 symbols – 0 to 9 and A to F where A is equal to
10, B is equal to 11 and so on till F. Hexadecimal number system is also a
positional value system with where each digit has its value expressed in
powers of 16, as shown here −

Decimal equivalent of any hexadecimal number is sum of product of each

digit with its positional value.
(27FB) 16 = 2×163 + 7×162 + 15×161 + 10×160

= 8192 + 1792 + 240 +10

= (10234)10

Number System Relationship

The following table depicts the relationship between decimal, binary, octal
and hexadecimal number systems.

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HEXADECIMAL DECIMAL OCTAL BINARY

0 0 0 0000

1 1 1 0001

2 2 2 0010

3 3 3 0011

4 4 4 0100

5 5 5 0101

6 6 6 0110

7 7 7 0111

8 8 10 1000

9 9 11 1001

A 10 12 1010

B 11 13 1011

C 12 14 1100

D 13 15 1101

E 14 16 1110

F 15 17 1111

33
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