Chapter 2:

Introduction to
C++
 2.1
The Part of a C++ Program
Programming
• A program is a set of instructions in proper sequence,
that causes a computer to perform a particular task.
• When learning to program in any programming
language, it’s best just to learn the “rules of the game.”
•Modern programs are projects composed of many of
individual program modules that have to be linked
together in order to be run. In fact most developer
systems have their own integrated development
environment (ide) and programs are developed in
phases within the ide.

BEGINNING C++ PROGRAMMING 3

C++ Program Phases
•…in the C++ programming environment

– Edit – in the text editor. Save with .cpp extension

– Preprocess - e.g., text replacement, including other files
from the library with the file to be compiled
– Compile - to object code
– Link - links the object code with the code for the standard
library functions referred to in the program. This
produces an executable image (with no missing pieces).
During Build process
– Load - program is placed in memory
– Execute - one instruction at a time

BEGINNING C++ PROGRAMMING 4

The Parts of a C++ Program
// sample C++ program comment
#include <iostream> preprocessor directive
using namespace std; which namespace to use
int main() beginning of function named main
{ beginning of block for main
cout << "Hello, there!"; output statement

return 0; send 0 to operating system string literal

} end of block for main
C++ Programming
Every programming language has facilities to: In C++
Read data from some input device cin >>
Write output information onto an output device cout <<
Perform arithmetic operations + - * /
Perform relational operations < == >
Perform logical operations ! && ||
Branch to a non-sequential instruction (w/wo structure) while
Store (and retrieve) data values to (and from) memory =

BEGINNING C++ PROGRAMMING 6

Special Characters
Character Name Meaning
// Double slash Beginning of a comment
# Pound sign Beginning of preprocessor
directive
< > Open/close brackets Enclose filename in #include
( ) Open/close Used when naming a
parentheses function
{ } Open/close brace Encloses a group of
statements
" " Open/close Encloses string of
quotation marks characters
; Semicolon End of a programming
statement
 2.2
The cout Object
The cout Object
• Displays output on the computer screen

• You use the stream insertion operator <<

to send output to cout:

cout << "Programming is fun!";

The cout Object
• Can be used to send more than one item
to cout:

cout << "Hello " << "there!";

Or:

cout << "Hello ";

cout << "there!";
The cout Object
• This produces one line of output:

cout << "Programming is ";

cout << "fun!";
The endl Manipulator
• You can use the endl manipulator to start
a new line of output. This will produce two
lines of output:

cout << "Programming is" << endl;

cout << "fun!";
The endl Manipulator

cout << "Programming is" << endl;

cout << "fun!";

Programming is
fun!
The endl Manipulator
• You do NOT put quotation marks around
endl

• The last character in endl is a lowercase

L, not the number 1.

endl This is a lowercase L

The \n Escape Sequence
• You can also use the \n escape sequence
to start a new line of output. This will
produce two lines of output:

cout << "Programming is\n";

cout << "fun!";

Notice that the \n is INSIDE

the string.
The \n Escape Sequence
cout << "Programming is\n";
cout << "fun!";

Programming is
fun!
 2.3
The #include Directive
The #include Directive
• Inserts the contents of another file into the
program
• This is a preprocessor directive, not part of
C++ language
• #include lines not seen by compiler
• Do not place a semicolon at end of
#include line
 2.4
Variables and Literals
Variables and Literals
• Variable: a storage location in memory

– Has a name and a type of data it can hold

– Must be defined before it can be used:

int item;
Variable Definition in Program 2-7

Variable Definition
Literals
• Literal: a value that is written into a
program’s code.

"hello, there" (string literal)

12 (integer literal)
Integer Literal in Program 2-9

20 is an integer literal
String Literals in Program 2-9

These are string literals

 2.5
Identifiers
Identifiers
• An identifier is a programmer-defined
name for some part of a program:
variables, functions, etc.
C++ Key Words
You cannot use any of the C++ key words as an
identifier. These words have reserved meaning.
Variable Names
• A variable name should represent the
purpose of the variable. For example:

itemsOrdered

The purpose of this variable is to hold the

number of items ordered.
Identifier Rules
• The first character of an identifier must be
an alphabetic character or an underscore
( _ ),
• After the first character you may use
alphabetic characters, numbers, or
underscore characters.
• Upper- and lowercase characters are
distinct
Valid and Invalid Identifiers
IDENTIFIER VALID? REASON IF INVALID

totalSales

total_Sales

total.Sales

4thQtrSales

totalSale$
 2.6
Integer Data Types
Integer Data Types
• Integer variables can hold whole numbers such
as 12, 7, and -99.
Defining Variables
• Variables of the same type can be defined
- On separate lines:
int length;
int width;
unsigned int area;
- On the same line:
int length, width;
unsigned int area;
• Variables of different types must be in different
definitions
Integer Types in Program 2-10

This program has three variables: checking,

miles, and days
Integer Literals
• An integer literal is an integer value that is
typed into a program’s code. For example:

itemsOrdered = 15;

In this code, 15 is an integer literal.

Integer Literals in Program 2-10

Integer Literals
Integer Literals
• Integer literals are stored in memory as
ints by default
• To store an integer constant in a long
memory location, put ‘L’ at the end of the
number: 1234L
• Constants that begin with ‘0’ (zero) are
base 8: 075
• Constants that begin with ‘0x’ are base
16: 0x75A
 2.7
The char Data Type
The char Data Type
• Used to hold characters or very small
integer values
• Usually 1 byte of memory
• Numeric value of character from the
character set is stored in memory:
CODE: MEMORY:
char letter; letter
letter = 'C';
67
Character Literals
• Character literals must be enclosed in
single quote marks. Example:

'A'
Character Literals in Program 2-13
Character Strings
• A series of characters in consecutive memory
locations:
"Hello"
• Stored with the null terminator, \0, at the end:

• Comprised of the characters between the " "

H e l l o \0
 2.8
The C++ string Class
The C++ string Class
• Special data type supports working with strings
• #include <string>
• Can define string variables in programs:
string firstName, lastName;
• Can receive values with assignment operator:
firstName = "George";
lastName = "Washington";
• Can be displayed via cout
cout << firstName << " " << lastName;
The string class in Program 2-15
 2.9
Floating-Point Data Types
Floating-Point Data Types
• The floating-point data types are:
float
double
long double

• They can hold real numbers such as:

12.45 -3.8

• Stored in a form similar to scientific notation

• All floating-point numbers are signed

Floating-Point Data Types
Floating-Point Literals
• Can be represented in
– Fixed point (decimal) notation:
31.4159 0.0000625
– E notation:
3.14159E1 6.25e-5
• Are double by default
• Can be forced to be float (3.14159f) or
long double (0.0000625L)
Floating-Point Data Types in
Program 2-16
 2.10
The bool Data Type
The bool Data Type
• Represents values that are true or
false
• bool variables are stored as small
integers
• false is represented by 0, true by 1:
bool allDone = true; allDone finished

1 0
bool finished = false;
Boolean Variables in Program 2-17
 2.11
Determining the Size of a Data
Type
Determining the Size of a Data
Type
The sizeof operator gives the size of any
data type or variable:
double amount;
cout << "A double is stored in "
<< sizeof(double) << "bytes\n";
cout << "Variable amount is stored
in “ << sizeof(amount) << "bytes\n";
 2.12
Variable Assignments and
Initialization
Variable Assignments and
Initialization
• An assignment statement uses the =
operator to store a value in a variable.

item = 12;

• This statement assigns the value 12 to the

item variable.
Assignment
• The variable receiving the value must
appear on the left side of the = operator.
• This will NOT work:

// ERROR!
12 = item;
Variable Initialization
• To initialize a variable means to assign it a
value when it is defined:

int length = 12;

• Can initialize some or all variables:

int length = 12, width = 5, area;
Variable Initialization in Program 2-
19
2.13
Scope
Scope
• The scope of a variable: the part of the
program in which the variable can be
accessed
• A variable cannot be used before it is
defined
Variable Out of Scope in Program
2-20
 2.14
Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic Operators
• Used for performing numeric calculations
• C++ has unary, binary, and ternary
operators:
– unary (1 operand) -5
– binary (2 operands) 13 - 7
– ternary (3 operands) exp1 ? exp2 : exp3
Binary Arithmetic Operators
SYMBOL OPERATION EXAMPLE VALUE OF
ans
+ addition ans = 7 + 3; 10

- subtraction ans = 7 - 3; 4

* multiplication ans = 7 * 3; 21

/ division ans = 7 / 3; 2

% modulus ans = 7 % 3; 1
Arithmetic Operators in Program 2-
21
A Closer Look at the / Operator
• / (division) operator performs integer
division if both operands are integers
cout << 13 / 5; // displays 2
cout << 91 / 7; // displays 13
• If either operand is floating point, the result
is floating point
cout << 13 / 5.0; // displays 2.6
cout << 91.0 / 7; // displays 13.0
A Closer Look at the % Operator
• % (modulus) operator computes the
remainder resulting from integer division
cout << 13 % 5; // displays 3
• % requires integers for both operands
cout << 13 % 5.0; // error
2.15
Comments
Comments
• Used to document parts of the program
• Intended for persons reading the source
code of the program:
– Indicate the purpose of the program
– Describe the use of variables
– Explain complex sections of code
• Are ignored by the compiler
Single-Line Comments
Begin with // through to the end of line:
int length = 12; // length in inches
int width = 15; // width in inches
int area; // calculated area

// calculate rectangle area

area = length * width;
Multi-Line Comments
• Begin with /*, end with */
• Can span multiple lines:
/* this is a multi-line
comment
*/
• Can begin and end on the same line:
int area; /* calculated area */
 2.16
Named Constants
Named Constants
• Named constant (constant variable):
variable whose content cannot be
changed during program execution
• Used for representing constant values with
descriptive names:
const double TAX_RATE = 0.0675;
const int NUM_STATES = 50;
• Often named in uppercase letters
Named Constants in Program 2-28
 2.17
Programming Style
Programming Style
• The visual organization of the source code
• Includes the use of spaces, tabs, and
blank lines
• Does not affect the syntax of the program
• Affects the readability of the source code
Programming Style
Common elements to improve readability:
• Braces { } aligned vertically
• Indentation of statements within a set of
braces
• Blank lines between declaration and other
statements
• Long statements wrapped over multiple
lines with aligned operators
 2.18
Standard and Prestandard C++
Standard and Prestandard C++
Older-style C++ programs:
– Use .h at end of header files:
– #include <iostream.h>
– Use #define preprocessor directive instead
of const definitions
– Do not use using namespace convention
– May not compile with a standard C++
compiler
#define directive in Program 2-31