Controllers

A controller is basically a unit present in a control system that generates control signals to reduce the
deviation of the actual value from the desired value to almost zero or lowest possible value. It is
responsible for the control action of the system so as to get accurate output. The method of producing a
control signal by the controller is known as control action. The figure below represents the block diagram
of an industrial controller:

Basically the deviation of the achieved output from the reference input is the error signal which is needed
to be compensated by the controller so that the system generates required output.
So, in a control system, the controller provides the desired controlling to the system so as to get the
necessary output. Essentially, the controller is some form of computer analog or digital, pneumatic or
electronic-that, using input measurements, solves certain equations to calculate the proper output. The
equations necessary to obtain control exist in only a few forms, independent of both the process itself and
whether the controller function is provided by an analog or digital computer. These equations describe the
modes or action of controller operation. The nature of the process itself and the particular variable
controlled determine which mode or modes of control are to be used and the value of certain constants in
the mode equations.
The deviation or error of the controlled variable from the setpoint is given by:
e=r −b (1)
To describe controller operation in a general way, it is better to express the error as percent of the
measured variable range (i.e., the span). The measured value of a variable can be expressed as percent of
span over a range of measurement by the equation:
c−c min
c p= (100 )
c max −c min (2)
Where

1
cmin = minimum of measured value
cmax = maximum of measured value
c = actual measured value
cp = measured value as percent of measurement range
This equation is in terms of the actual measured variable, c, but the same equation can be expressed in
terms of the measured indication, b. It is necessary only to translate the measured minimum and
maximum to bmin and bmax. To express error as percent of span, it is necessary only to write both the
setpoint and measurement in terms of percent of span and take the difference according to Equation
(1).The result is
r−b
e p= (100 )
bmax −bmin (3)
Where ep is error expressed as percent of span. A positive error indicates a measurement below the
setpoint, and a negative error indicates a measurement above the setpoint.
Generally, the variable under control has a range of values within which control is to be maintained. This
range can be expressed as the minimum and maximum value of the variable. If a standard 4- to 20-mA
signal transmission is employed, then 4 mA represents the minimum value of the variable and 20 mA the
maximum. When a computer-based control system is used, the dynamic variable is converted to an n-bit
digital signal. Often, the transformation is made so that all 0’s are the minimum value of the variable and
all 1’s are the maximum value.
Control Parameter Range
This is a range associated with the controller output. Here we assume the final control element has some
minimum and maximum effect on the process. The controller output range is the translation of output to
the range of possible values of the final control element. This range is also expressed as the 4- to 20-mA
standard signal, again with the minimum and maximum effects in terms of the minimum and maximum
current. Similarly, in computer-based control, the output will range over all states of the n-bit output.
Generally, all 0’s are the minimum output and all 1’s the maximum. These numbers do not necessarily
represent the minimum and maximum of the final control element, however. We may wish a valve never
to be fully closed, for example; therefore, all 0’s might represent some percentage of full open. Often, the
output is expressed as a percentage where 0% is the minimum controller output and 100% the maximum
(obviously). The controller output as a percent of full scale when the output varies between specified
limits is given by:
u−u min
p= (100)
u max −umin (4)
Where

2
umin = minimum value of controlling parameter
umax = maximum value of controlling parameter
u = value of the output
p = controller output as percent of full scale
Example
A controller outputs a 4- to 20-mA signal to control motor speed from 140 to 600 rpm with a linear
dependence. Calculate (a) current corresponding to 310 rpm, and (b) the value of (a) expressed as the
percent of control output.
Solution
a. We find the slope m and intersect So of the linear relation between current I and speed S, where
S p =mI +S o
S
Knowing p and I at the two given positions, we write two equations:
140=4 m+S o
600=20 m+S o

Solving these simultaneous equations, we get m=28 . 75 rpm/mA and So =25 rpm . Thus, at 310 rpm
we have, I = 9.91 mA.
b. Expressed as a percentage of the 4- to 20-mA range, this controller output is
u−u min
p= (100)
u max −u min

¿[ 9 . 91−4
20−4 ] 100
¿ 36 . 9 %
Reverse and Direct Action
The error that results from measurement of the controlled variable may be positive or negative, because
the value may be greater or less than the setpoint. How this polarity of the error changes the controller
output can be selected according to the nature of the process. A controller operates with direct action
when an increasing value of the controlled variable causes an increasing value of the controller output. An
example would be a level-control system that outputs a signal to an output valve. Clearly, if the level rises
(increases), the valve should be opened (i.e., its drive signal should be increased). Reverse action is the
opposite case, where an increase in a controlled variable causes a decrease in controller output. An
example of this would be a simple temperature control from a heater. If the temperature increases, the
drive to the heater should be decreased.
Types of Controllers or modes of control

3
Before discussing the various types of controllers, one must be aware of the operational modes of the
controllers. This is so because the various types of controllers are originated from the different modes of
operation. So, basically there are two modes of operation namely: Continuous and discontinuous modes
of operation.
Discontinuous control mode: A discontinuous mode of controller operation permits a discrete output
value. In this mode, the output does not show smooth variation according to the signal generated by the
controller rather shows fluctuation from one value to another. For example, in a thermostatically
controlled temperature system used in the home, the controller response is simple. If the temperature
drops below the thermostat setpoint, a bimetallic relay turns on a heater. The input is the temperature
that is initially set into the device. • Comparison is then made between the input and the temperature
of the outside world. • If the two are different, an error results and an output is produced that activates
a heating or cooling device. • The comparator within the thermostat continually samples the ambient
temperature, i.e., the feedback, until the error is zero; the output then turns off the heating or cooling
device. According to this mode of operation, controllers are of two types:
 On-Off / Two-position controllers
 Multiposition controllers
 Floating controllers
Continuous control mode: This mode permits smooth variation of the controlled output over the entire
range of operation. The output of the control system shows continuous variation in proportion to the
entire error signal or some form of it. So, on the basis of the input applied, controllers are majorly
classified as:
 Proportional controller
 Integral controller
 Derivative controller
The PID-based compensational or controller approach to control systems design is one way of improving
the performance of the system. To this day, PID control is still the predominant method in industry and is
found in over 95 percent of industrial applications. Its success can be attributed to the simplicity,
efficiency, and effectiveness of this design method.
So, lets us now understand each type of controller.
Two-position controllers
These are also known as on/off controllers. Here the output of the controller fluctuates between two
specific values, generally the maximum and minimum value. The maximum value is generally considered
100% while the minimum as 0%. It is the easiest and most common type of control action of a controller.
Here the output shows variation between maximum and minimum values according to the actuating error

4
signal. Basically the output gets changed from minimum value to maximum value when the value of
actuating error signal increases above a critical value. Similarly, the output gets reduced to its minimum
value from the maximum value when the value of the error signal falls below the critical value.
Suppose m is the output of the controller, e represents the actuating error signal and m 1 and m2 represent
the maximum and minimum value respectively.
Then mathematically we can write it as:

The figure below represents the block diagram of the two-position controller:

It is noteworthy in case of on-off controllers that each time when error increases or decreases through 0
then an overlapping exists. This overlapping leads to the span of error and this span of error is known as
the dead zone or the neutral zone or the overlap.
Neutral Zone: In virtually any practical implementation of the two-position controller, there is an overlap
as increases through zero or decreases through zero. In this span, no change in controller output occurs.
This is best shown in the following figure, which plots p versus for a two-position controller. We see that
until an increasing error changes by above zero, the controller output will not change state. In decreasing,
it must fall below zero before the controller changes to the 0% rating. The range, which is referred to as
the neutral zone or differential gap, is often purposely designed above a certain minimum quantity to
prevent excessive cycling. The existence of such a neutral zone is an example of desirable hysteresis in a
system.

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Example
A liquid-level control system linearly converts a displacement of 2 to 3 m into a 4- to 20-mA control
signal. A relay serves as the two-position controller to open or close an inlet valve. The relay closes at 12
mA and opens at 10 mA. Find (a) the relation between displacement level and current, and (b) the neutral
zone or displacement gap in meters.
Solution
a. The relation between level and a current is a linear equation such as:
H=KI + H o

We find K and
H o by writing two equations:
2=4 K +H o
3=20 K + H o
H =1 .75 m , at the intersection of
Solving these simultaneous equations yields K=0. 0625 m/mA and o
the linear relations.

b. The relay closes at 12 mA, which is a high level,

H H , of

H H =0 . 0625(m/mA )(12 mA )+1. 75 m=2 .5 m

The low level,

H L , occurs at 10 mA, which is

H L=0 . 0625(m/mA )(10 mA )+1 .75 m=2 . 35 m

Thus, the neutral zone is

H H −H L , or 0.125 m.

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Applications Generally, the two-position control mode is best adapted to large-scale systems with
relatively slow process rates. Thus, in the example of either a room heating or air-conditioning system,
the capacity of the system is very large in terms of air volume, and the overall effect of the heater or
cooler is relatively slow. Sudden, large-scale changes are not common to such systems. The process under
two-position control must allow continued oscillation in the controlled variable because, by its very
nature, this mode of control always produces such oscillations. Examples of systems using two-position
controllers are room heater system, liquid level controlling system in water tanks, air conditioners, etc.
Multiposition Controllers
A logical extension of the previous two-position control mode is to provide several intermediate, rather
than only two, settings of the controller output. This discontinuous control mode is used in an attempt to
reduce the cycling behavior and overshoot and undershoot inherent in the two-position mode. This mode
is represented by:

p= p i When e p ≻|e i|i=1,2,3......,n (5)

As the error exceeds certain set limits

±e i , the controller output is adjusted to preset values pi . The most
common example is the three-position controller where
p={100 %; e p ≻e2 }
p={50 %; -e 1≺e p ≺e 2 }
p={0 %; e p ≺−e 1 } (6)

As long as the error is between

e 2 ande 1 of the setpoint, the controller stays at some nominal setting

indicated by a controller output of 50%. If the error exceeds the setpoint by

e 1 or more, then the output is

increased by 100%. If it is less than the setpoint by

-e 1 or more, the controller output is reduced to zero.
Figure below illustrates this mode graphically. This type of control mode usually requires a more
complicated final control element, because it must have more than two settings.

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Floating-Control Mode
In the two previous modes of controller action, the output was uniquely determined by the magnitude of
the error input. If the error exceeded some preset limit, the output was changed to a new setting as quickly
as possible. In floating control, the specific output of the controller is not uniquely determined by the
error. If the error is zero, the output does not change but remains (floats) at whatever setting it was when
the error went to zero. When the error moves off zero, the controller output again begins to change.
Actually, as with the two-position mode, there is typically a neutral zone around zero error where no
change in controller position occurs.
Single Speed
In the single-speed floating-control mode, the output of the control element changes at a fixed rate when
the error exceeds the neutral zone. An equation for this action is:
dp
=±K F |e p|≻ Δe p
dt (7)
Where
dp
=
dt rate of change of controller output with time
K F =rate constant (%/s )
Δe p =half the neutral zone
If Equation (7) is integrated for the actual controller output, we get

p=± K F t +p(0) |e p|≻Δe p (8)

Where p (0) = controller output at t = 0

8
which shows that the present output depends on the time history of errors that have previously occurred.
Because such a history usually is not known, the actual value of p floats at an undetermined value. If the
deviation persists, then Equation (8) shows that the controller saturates at either 100% or 0% and remains
there until an error drives it toward the opposite extreme. A graph of single-speed floating control is
shown in the Figure below. The Figure shows controller output versus time and error versus time for a
hypothetical case illustrating typical operation.

In this example, we assume the controller is reverse acting, which means the controller output decreases

when the error exceeds the neutral zone. This corresponds to a negative
K F in Equation (8). Most
controllers can be adjusted to act in either the reverse or direct mode. Here the controller starts at some
t
output p(0). At time 1 , the error exceeds the neutral zone. The controller output decreases at a constant

rate until
t 2 , when the error again falls below the neutral zone limit. At t 3 , the error falls below the lower
limit of the neutral zone, causing controller output to change until the error again moves within the
allowable band.
CONTINUOUS CONTROLLER MODES
The most common controller action used in industry is one or a combination of continuous controller
modes. In these modes, the output of the controller changes smoothly in response to the error or rate of
change of error.
Proportional Controller

9
The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the proportional
controller is shown in the following figure.

In this type of controller, a proportional linear relationship is maintained between the controlled variable
and the actuating error signal. The proportional controller is used to change the transient response as per
the requirement. In the proportional mode of control, a smooth, linear relationship exists between the
controller output and the error. Thus, over some range of errors about the set point, each value of error
has a unique value of controller output in one-to-one correspondence. The range of error to cover the 0%
to 100% controller output is called the proportional band, because the one-to-one correspondence exists
only for errors in this range.
The proportional controller produces an output, which is proportional to error signal. i.e.,
u(t ) α e (t )
⇒u (t )=K P e (t )
Here KP is the proportional gain constant and it determines the relation between controlled output and
error signal. In terms of Laplace transform the above equation can be written as:
U ( s)=K P E (s)
U (s)
⇒ =K P
E (s)

Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional controller is

K P . [email protected]
Where,
U (s) is the Laplace transform of the actuating signal u (t)
E (s) is the Laplace transform of the error signal e (t)
K P is the proportionality constant
So, we can say each error value provides a unique controller output in this case. As we have discussed
that there exists a linear relationship between controller output and the error signal. But the output of the
controller must not be 0 because 0 value of the error signal will give rise to halt state in the process. Thus
for zero error, the output will be:
u(t )= K P e (t )+ p (0)

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: po is controlled output in case of zero error.
This type of controller permits both direct as well as reverse action. This is so because an error can be
either positive or negative depending upon the difference of reference input and the feedback signal.
When with the increase in the input to the controller its output also increases then it is known as direct
control action. While if the increase in input causes a decrease in output and vice-versa then it is known
as reverse action.
Direct and Reverse Action: Recall that the error is expressed using the difference between set point and
the measurement. This means that as the measured value increases above the set point, the error will be

negative and the output will decrease. That is, the term K P E (s ) will subtract from the initial conditions.
Thus, the above equation represents reverse action. Direct action would be provided by putting a negative

sign in front of the correction term K P E (s ) .

A plot of the proportional mode output versus error is shown in the Figure below. In this case, the initial
controller output has been set to 50% and two different controller gains have been used. Note that the
proportional band is dependent on the gain. A high gain means large response to an error, but also a
narrow error band within which the output is not saturated.

In general, the proportional band is defined by the equation

100
PB=
KP
Let us summarize the characteristics of the proportional mode of control.

1. If the error is zero, the output is a constant equal toU o .

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2. If there is error, for every 1% of error, a correction of K P percent is added to or subtracted from the

output U ( s) , depending on the sign of the error.

3. There is a band of error about zero of magnitude PB within which the output is not saturated at 0% or
100%.
Offset: An important characteristic of the proportional control mode is that it produces a permanent
residual error in the operating point of the controlled variable when a change in load occurs. This error is
referred to as offset. It can be minimized by a larger gain constant, which also reduces the proportional
band. To see how offset occurs, consider a system under nominal load with the controller at 50% and the
error zero, as shown in the Figure below. If a transient error occurs, the system responds by changing
controller output in correspondence with the transient to effect a return-to-zero error. Suppose, however, a
load change occurs
that requires a permanent change in controller output to produce the zero-error state. Because a one-to-
one correspondence exists between controller output and error, it is clear that a new, zero-error controller
output can never be achieved. Instead, the system produces a small permanent offset in reaching a
compromise position of controller output under new loads.

Application The offset error limits use of the proportional mode to only a few cases, particularly those
where a manual reset of the operating point is possible to eliminate offset. Proportional control generally
is used in processes where large load changes are unlikely or with moderate to small process lag times.

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Thus, if the process lag time is small, the proportional band can be made very small (large K P ), which

reduces offset error. As shows in the figure above, if K P is made very large, the PB becomes very small,
and the proportional mode acts just like an ON/OFF mode. Remember that the ON/OFF control mode
exhibits oscillations about the set point. From these statements it is clear that, for high gain, the
proportional mode causes oscillations of the error.
Examples
1. If the set-point is suddenly changed 10% within a proportional band setting of 50%, determine the
change in controller output.
2. For a proportional controller, the controlled variable is a process temperature with a range of 50 to
130οC and a set point of 73.5οC. Under nominal conditions, the set point is maintained with controller
output of 50%. Find the proportional offset resulting from a load change that requires a 55%
controller output if the proportional gain is (a) 0.1, (b) 0.7, (c) 2.0, and (d) 5.0.
3. For the applications of Problem 2, find the percentage controller output with the 73.5 οC set point and
a proportional gain of 2.0 if the temperature is (a) 61οC, (b) 122οC, and (c) a ramping temperature of
(82+5t) οC.
Derivative Controller
The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the derivative
controller is shown in the following figure.

In the derivative type of controller, the controller output depends on the rate with which the error signal
varies. Practically we can say that the error is a function of time and at any given time instant it can be 0.
However, it is not necessary that it will remain zero even after that instant of time. Thus there must be
some action that specifies the rate of change of error signal. Sometimes it is also referred as a rate action
mode of the controller. The derivative controller is used to make the unstable control system into a stable
one. The derivative controller produces an output, which is time derivative of the error signal.
Thus it is given as:
de (t )
u(t )= K D
dt

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KD denotes the derivative gain constant which shows the amount of variation in output of the controller
for every per second rate of change of actuating error signal. For the above equation, Laplace transform is
given as
Or we can write it as
U ( s)=K D sE (s)
U (s)
⇒ =K D s
E (s)

Therefore, the transfer function of the derivative controller is

K D s , where, K D is the derivative constant.
Hence we can say that every rate of change of error signal provides a significantly different value of the
output of the controller. It serves as an advantageous factor for the system because every time the output
varies with the change in error signal, thereby providing significant corrected output before the error
approaches a large value. Practically these modes are not used separately thus a combination of these
modes is used.
Derivation controller action responds to the rate at which the error is changing- that is, the derivative of

the error. Appropriately, the gain,

K D , tells us by how much percent to change the controller output for
every percent-per-second rate of change of error. Derivative action is not used alone because it provides
no output when the error is constant. Derivative controller action is also called rate action and
anticipatory control. Figure below illustrates how derivative action changes the controller output for
various rates of change of error. For this example, it is assumed that the controller output with no error or
rate of change of error is 50%. When the error changes very rapidly with a positive slope, the output
jumps to a large value, and when the error is not changing, the output returns to 50%. Finally, when the
error is decreasing-that is, has a negative slope the output discontinuously changes to a lower value. The
derivative mode must be used with great care and usually with a small gain, because a rapid rate of
change of error can cause very large, sudden changes of controller output. Such an event can lead to
instability.

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Let us summarize the characteristics of the derivative mode.
1. If the error is zero, the mode provides no output.
2. If the error is constant in time, the mode provides no output.
3. If the error is changing in time, the mode contributes an output of percent for every 1%-per-second rate
of change of error.
4. For direct action, a positive rate of change of error produces a positive derivative mode output.
Example

1. How would a derivative controller with K D=4 s respond to an error that varies as

e(t )=2 . 2sin (0. 04 t )

Integral Controller
A controller with a type of control action, in which the rate of change of the output shows proportionality
with the actuating error signal, is known as an integral controller. The integral controller produces an
output, which is the time integral of the error signal. The block diagram of the unity negative feedback
closed loop control system along with the integral controller is shown in the following figure. The integral
controller is used to decrease the steady state error.

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u(t )= K I ∫ e(t )dt+ p I (0 )

Where p I (0 ) ) is the output of the controller at t = 0

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides -
KI
U ( s )= E (s )
s
U (s ) K I
⇒ =
E (s ) s
KI
K
Therefore, the transfer function of the integral controller is s , where, I is the integral constant.
In the case of the integrating controller, the rate of change of the output of the controller depends on the
integrating time constant, till the time error signal becomes 0. Thus it is said to be comparatively slower
than the proportional controller. Here in order to generate an appreciable output comparatively more time
is required. But in its case, the processing continues, till the time error signal becomes zero.
The need for integral action shows up when it is noted that even with proportional action correction, the

error does not go to zero in time. Suppose a system has some error, e (t ) ,and the proportional mode

provides a change in controller output, K p e(t ) . As we watch the error in time, we note that the error may
reduce, but it does not go to zero; in fact, it may become constant. Integral action is needed. Integral
action is provided by summing the error over time, multiplying that sum by a gain, and adding the result
to the present controller output. You can see that if the error makes random excursions above and below
zero, the net sum will be zero, so the integral action will not contribute. But if the error becomes positive
or negative for an extended period of time, the integral action will begin to accumulate and make changes
to the controller output.
Another way of thinking of integral action is found by taking the derivative of the integral Equation. In
that case, we find a relation for the rate at which the controller output changes, i.e.,
du(t )
=K I e (t )
dt
This equation shows that when an error occurs, the controller begins to increase (or decrease) its output at
a rate that depends upon the size of the error and the gain. If the error is zero, the controller output is not

16
changed. If there is positive error, the controller output begins to ramp up at a rate determined by the
above Equation. Figure illustrates this for two different values of gain.
Figure (a) shows how the rate of change of controller output depends upon the value of error and the size

of the gain
K I . Figure (b) shows how the actual controller output would look if a constant error occurred.

You can see how the controller output begins to ramp up at a rate determined by the gain
K I . In the case

of gain
K I , the output finally saturates at 100%, and no further action can occur (perhaps a control valve
is fully open, for example).
Let us summarize the characteristics of the integral mode.
1. If the error is zero, the output stays fixed at a value equal to what it was when the error went to zero.
2. If the error is not zero, the output will begin to increase or decrease at a rate of K I percent/second for
every 1% of error.
Area Accumulation: From calculus we learn that an integral determines the area of the function being
integrated. Thus, Equation of an integral controller can be interpreted as providing a controller output

equal to the net area under the error-time curve multiplied by

K I . We often say that the integral term
accumulates error as a function of time. Thus, for every 1% - s of accumulated error-time area, the output

will be
K I percent.

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The integral gain,
K I , is often represented by the inverse, which is called the integral time, or the reset
1/¿
T I= ¿
action, KI . This is often expressed in minutes instead of seconds because this unit is more

typical of many industrial process speeds. The integral controller constant

K I may be expressed in
percentage change per minute per percentage error, whenever a typical process-control loop has
characteristic response time in minutes rather than seconds. Thus, an integral mode controller with reset

action at 5.7 minutes means that

K I for our equations would be:

1
K I= =2. 92 x10−3 s−1
(5. 7 min )(60 s /min)

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Examples
2. An integral controller is used for speed control with a set point of 12 rpm within a range of 10 to 15

rpm. The controller output is 22% initially. The constant

K I =−0 .15 % controller output per second
per percentage error. If the speed jumps to 13.5 rpm, calculate the controller output after 2 s for a

constant error e (t ) .
−1
3. An integral controller has a reset action of 2.2 minutes. Express the integral controller constant in s .
Find the output of this controller to a constant error of 2.2%.
COMPOSITE CONTROL MODES
It is common in the complex of industrial processes to find control requirements that do not fit the
application norms of any of the previously considered controller modes. It is both possible and expedient
to combine several basic modes, thereby gaining the advantages of each mode of control. In some cases,
an added advantage is that the modes tend to eliminate some limitations they individually possess. We
will now discuss about the combination of basic controllers and the merits of each mode.
Proportional Derivative (PD) Controller
The proportional derivative controller produces an output, which is the combination of the outputs of
proportional and derivative controllers.
de (t )
u(t )= K P e (t )+K P K D +u(0 )
dt
Apply Laplace transform on both sides -
U ( s )=( K P +K P K D s ) E( s )
U (s )
⇒ =K P ( 1+K D s )
E (s )

Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional derivative controller is K P (1+K D s ) .

An example of the operation of this mode for a hypothetical load change is shown in the Figure below.
Note the effect of derivative action in moving the controller output in relation to the error rate change.

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Earlier the control action of derivative controllers was individually used in a control system. But the
merger of the proportional controller with a derivative controller provides a more efficient system. As
here the disadvantages associated with the derivative controller get eliminated by a proportional
controller.
We know that derivative controllers are basically designed with the aim that its output changes with the
changing error signal.
However, it does not show variation in the case of constant error signal. The reason behind this is that
when the value of the error signal remains constant then its rate of change with time will be 0. So, in order
to consider even constant error signal, derivative controllers are used in conjunction with proportional
controllers. The presence of a derivative control action with a proportional controller enhances sensitivity.
This helps in producing early corrective response for even small value of error signal thereby increasing
the stability of the system. But we are also aware of the fact that the derivative controller increases
steady-state error while the proportional controllers reduce the steady-state error. Therefore, to enhance
the stability of the system without affecting the steady-state error, a combination of proportional and
derivative controllers is used.

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the proportional
derivative controller is shown in the following figure. The proportional derivative controller is used to
improve the stability of control system without affecting the steady state error. It is clear that this system

20
cannot eliminate the offset of proportional controllers. It can, however, handle fast process load changes
as long as the load change offset error is acceptable.

Example:
1. Suppose the error of Figure a, is applied to a proportional-derivative controller with K P = 5, KD = 0.5
s, and p0 = 20%. Draw a graph of the resulting controller output.

Solution
In this case, we evaluate
de (t )
u(t )= K P e (t )+K P K D +u(0 )
dt

over the two spans of the error. In the time of 0 to 1 s where e (t )=at , we have
u1 (t )=K P at + K P K D a+u(0 )

or, because a=1 %/ s ,

21
u1 ( t )=5 t +2 . 5+20
Note the instantaneous change of 2.5% produced due to the derivative action by this error.
In the span from 1 to 3 s,
we have
u2(t) = 5 + 20 = 25

The span from 3 to 5 s has an error of e (t )=0 . 5 t+2 .5 , so that we get for 3 to 5 s
u3 (t )=−2 .5 t +12. 5−1. 25+20
Or
u3 (t )=−2 .5 t +31. 25
This controlled output is plotted in Figure b.
K =2 . 0 .
2. APD controller has p
K D=2s , andu(0 )=40 % . Plot the controller output for the error input
of Figure below.

Proportional Integral (PI) Controller

The proportional integral controller produces an output, which is the combination of outputs of the
proportional and integral controllers. This combination of two different controllers produces a more
efficient controller which eliminates the disadvantages associated with each one of them. In this case, the
control signal shows proportionality with both the error signal as well as with integral of the error signal.
Mathematically,

u(t )= K P e(t )+K P K I ∫ e(t )dt +uI (0)

Apply Laplace transform on both sides -

22
 (
U ( s )=K P 1+
KI
s ) E(s )

⇒
U (s )
E (s ) (
=K P 1+
KI
s )
Therefore, the transfer function of proportional integral controller is
(
K P 1+
KI
s . )
A major disadvantage which is associated with the integral controller is that these are quite unstable. The
reason behind this is that integral controllers show somewhat slow response towards the produced error.
However, the major advantage concerning the proportional controller is that these are designed in a way
by which steady-state error gets reduced significantly thereby making the system more stable. This is the
reason the two are combined and used to produce a type of controller which provides highly stable
results.
The block diagram of a PI controller is given below.

The proportional integral controller is used to decrease the steady state error without affecting the
stability of the control system.
The main advantage of this composite control mode is that the one-to-one correspondence of the
proportional mode is available and the integral mode eliminates the inherent offset. Notice that the
proportional gain, by design, also changes the net integration mode gain, but that the integration gain,

through K I , can be independently adjusted. Recall that the proportional mode offset occurred when a load
change required a new nominal controller output that could not be provided except by a fixed error from
the set point. In the present mode, the integral function provides the required new controller output,
thereby allowing the error to be zero after a load change. The integral feature effectively provides a reset
of the zero error output after a load change occurs.
Let us summarize the characteristics of the PI mode and Equation
1. When the error is zero, the controller output is fixed at the value that the integral term had when the

error went to zero. This output is given by u I ( 0 ) simply because we chose to define the time at which
observation starts ast =0 .

23
2. If the error is not zero, the proportional term contributes a correction, and the integral term begins to

increase or decrease the accumulated value [initially, u I ( 0 ) ], depending on the sign of the error and
the direct or reverse action.
3. The integral term cannot become negative. Thus, it will saturate at zero if the error and action try to
drive the area to a net negative value.
Application: As noted, this composite proportional-integral mode eliminates the offset problem of
proportional controllers. It follows that the mode can be used in systems with frequent or large load
changes. Because of the integration time, however, the process must have relatively slow changes in load
to prevent oscillations induced by the integral overshoot. Another disadvantage of this system is that
during start-up of a batch process, the integral action causes a considerable overshoot of the error and
output before settling to the operation point.
Example:
Given the error of Figure below (top), plot a graph of a proportional-integral controller output as a

function of time if. K p =5 , KI =1/s and u I (0 )=20 %

Solution
We find the solution by an application of

u(t )= K P e(t )+K P K I ∫ e(t )dt +uI (0)

To find the controller output, we solve the above Equation in time. The error can be expressed
in three time regions.
( 0≤t≤1 ) ( t between 0 and 1s )
The error rises from 0% to 1% in 1 s. Thus, it is given bye (t )=t % .
( 1≤t≤3 ) ( t between 1 and 3s)
For this time span, the error is constant and equal to 1%; therefore, it is given bye (t )=1 % .
( t≥3 ) (t greater than 3s )
For this time, the error is zero, thereforee (t )=0 % .
We now write out and solve Equation for each of these time spans.

24
( 0≤t≤1 ) ( t between 0 and 1s ); e p =t%
t
u1 =5 t+5 ∫ tdt +20
0

[]
2 1
t
¿ 5 t+5 +20
2 0
¿ 5 t+2 . 5 t 2 +20
This is plotted in the Figure below (bottom) from 0 to 1 s. Notice the curvature because of the squared
term. Remember that only the integral term accumulates values, so in finding the output at 1s, the
contribution of the proportional term, 5t, is not included. Therefore, the starting value for the next time

span is given byu1 (0)=2. 5+20=22. 5 % .

( 1≤t≤3 ) ( t between 1 and 3s) , e (t )=1 %
3
u2 =5+5 ∫ 1 dt+22 . 5
1
3
¿ 5+5 [ t ]
1 +22. 5
¿ 5+5(t−1 )+22. 5
The integral term accumulation from 0 to 1s forms the initial condition for this new equation. This
function is plotted in the Figure from 1 to 3 s. At the end of this period, the integral term has accumulated

a value ofu2 (3)=32. 5 % .Figure (bottom) shows that the output will stay constant at 32.5% from 3 s.
The sudden drop of 5% is due to the sudden change of error from 1% to 0% at s.

25
Effects of PI Controller
To understand the effect of PI controller, consider the PI controller with unity negative feedback given
below:

Suppose the gain of the controller is given as G1(s) whose value we have recently evaluated as:

(
K P 1+
1
Tis )
And let the open-loop gain of the system be G2(s), given as

26
 ω
n2
KP
s ( s +2 ζωn )

But the overall loop gain of the system will beG( s)=G1 ( s). G2 ( s)
So, on substituting,

[ ]
1+T i s ω2
n
G( s )=K p
T i s s 2+ 2 ζωn s

For a unity feedback system,

C( s ) G(s )
=
R( s ) 1+G( s )
Thus the gain will be given as

G( s )
=
Kp
[1+T i s ωn 2
Ti s ]
s 2 +2 ζωn s

[ ]
R( s ) 1+T i s ωn 2
1+ K p
Ti s s 2 +2 ζωn s
K p [ 1+ T i s ] ω 2
G( s ) n
=
R( s ) T i s ( s +2 ζωn s )+ K p [ 1+T i s ] ω
2
n2
K p [ 1+ T i s ] ω 2
G( s ) n
=
R( s ) T i s 3 +2 ζωn s 2 T i + K p ω 2 + K p ω 2 T i s
n n

Taking Ti out from the denominator, we will get

G(s) K p [ 1+ T i s ] ω n2
=
R( s ) T i K pω 2
n
s 3 +2 ζωn s2 + +K p ω 2s
Ti n

Since we know Ti = Kp / Ki, So substituting Kp/Ti as Ki in above equation we will get

G(s) [ 1+T i s ] ω n 2
=K i
R( s ) K pω 2
n
s 3 +2 ζωn s 2 + +K pω 2 s
Ti n

We have already discussed that PI controllers are designed to decrease the steady-state error. And in
order to cause a reduction in steady-state error, the type number must be increased. It is to be noted here
that the type number of the controller is defined by the presence of ‘s’ in the transfer function. The above
equation clearly indicates that the power of ‘s’ is showing a significant increase in the transfer function.
This implies the rise in the type number which resultantly causes a reduction in steady-state error.

27
When the PI controller is not present in the control system then there will be absence of ‘s’ in the
numerator which will cause the absence of zeros in the transfer function. So, we can say by introducing PI
controllers in a control system, the steady-state error of the system gets extremely reduced without
affecting the stability of the system.
Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) Controller
The proportional integral derivative controller produces an output, which is the combination of the
outputs of proportional, integral and derivative controllers.
de (t )
u(t )= K P e (t )+K I ∫ e(t )dt+ K D
dt

(
U ( s )= K P +
KI
s )
+ K D s E( s )

Apply Laplace transform on both sides -

⇒
U (s)
E (s) ( KI
= K P+ +K D s
s )
Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional integral derivative controller is
( K P+
KI
s
+K D s ) .
The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the proportional
integral derivative controller is shown in the following figure.

The proportional integral derivative controller is used to improve the stability of the control system and
to decrease steady state error.
Implementation of Electronic Controllers using operational amplifiers.
In what follows we discuss electronic controllers using operational amplifiers.
Proportional Mode
Implementation of this mode requires a circuit that has a response given by:
u(t )= K P e (t )+u 0
Where,
e (t ) is error in percent of variable range
u(t ) is controller output
K P is proportional gain

28
u0 ( t ) is controller output with no error

If we consider both the controller output and error to be expressed in terms of voltage, we see that the
equation is simply a summing amplifier. The op amp circuit in the figure below shows such an electronic
proportional controller.

In this case, the analog electronic equation for the output voltage is
V out =G P Ve +V 0 ,

where
V out is output voltage

G P =R2 / R 1 is the proportional voltage gain.

Ve is error voltage
V 0 is output with zero error

The design of a proportional controller calls for specification of the proportional gain described

by K P that expresses the percent of output for an error of 1% of the measurement range. Alternatively, it

could be described as the proportional band, PB=100 /K P . This must now be expressed in terms of the

voltage gain, G P . The relationship between G P and K P is given by,

ΔV out
G P =KP
ΔV in
Where,
ΔV out is the range of output voltage
ΔV in is the range of measurement voltage

Integral Mode
Implementation of this mode requires a circuit that has a response given by:
t
u(t )= K I ∫ e(t )+u0
0

29
Where,
e (t ) is error in percent of variable range
u(t ) is controller output
K I is the integral gain (s−1 )

u0 ( t ) is controller output at time t = 0

This function is easy to implement when op amps are used as the building blocks. A diagram of an
integral controller is shown in the figure below.

The corresponding equation relating input to output is

t
V out =G I∫ V e (t )+V out (0 )
0

Where,
V e is error voltage

V out is controller output voltage

G I =1/ RC is the integral gain (s−1 )

V out (0 ) is controller output voltage at time t = 0

The values of R and C can be adjusted to obtain the desired integration time. The initial controller
output is the integrator output at t =0 . The integration time constant determines the rate at which

controller output increases when the error is constant. If

K I is made too large, the output rises so fast that

overshoots of the optimum setting occur and cycling or oscillations is produced. The actual value of
GI ,

and therefore of R and C, is determined from

K I and the input and output voltage ranges.
Derivative Mode

30
The derivative mode is never used alone because it cannot provide a controller output when the error is
zero. Nevertheless, we show here how it is implemented with op amps so it can be combined with other
modes in the next section. The control mode equation was given earlier as
de (t )
u(t )= K D
dt
where
e (t ) is error in percent of variable range
u(t ) is controller output
K D is the derivative time constant

In principle, this mode could be implemented by the op amp circuit shown in the figure below with
appropriate identifications in terms of circuit elements where:
dV e
V out =−RC
dt
The input voltage has been set equal to the controller error voltage. From a practical perspective, this
circuit cannot be used because it tends to be unstable; that is, it may begin to exhibit spontaneous
oscillations in the output voltage. The reason for this instability is the very large gain at high frequencies
where the derivative is very large. To study this effect, let us assume that the input voltage is given by a

sinusoidal voltage oscillating with some frequency, f; then Ve=V 0 sin (2 π ft ) . So, from the above equation

we can write the amplitude of the output as,

|V out|=2π fRC|V e|. This equation shows that the magnitude of
the output voltage increases linearly with frequency. So, in principle, as the frequency goes to infinity, so
does the output! Clearly this is unacceptable in our control system. A little high-frequency noise will
cause large excursions in output voltage.

In order to make a practical circuit, a modification is provided that essentially “clamps” the gain above
some frequency to a constant value. We make sure that the clamped frequencies are well above anything
that could occur in the actual control system. This way, the circuit provides a derivative output in the
frequencies of practical interest but simply acts like a fixed-gain amplifier at higher frequencies. Figure
below shows that the simple modification is to place a resistor in series with the capacitor.

31
The actual transfer function for this circuit can be shown to be given by
dV out dV
V out +R1 C =−R2 C e
dt dt
It can see that the output depends upon the derivative of the input voltage, but there is now an extra term
involving the derivative of the output voltage. Essentially, we have a first-order differential equation
relating input and output voltage. For very high frequencies the impedance of the capacitor becomes very
small and can be neglected. Then the circuit becomes just an inverting amplifier with a gain (R2/R1). At
low frequency the impedance of the capacitor will be large so R1 can be neglected. Then, the response of
the first derivative equation prevails. The circuit exhibits a derivative response provided the following
inequality is satisfied,
2πfR1C << 1
Therefore, when using a derivative action circuit, we must estimate the maximum physical frequency at

which the system can respond, f max , and pick R1 so that for frequencies much higher than this, the
inequality of Equation 2πfR1C << 1 is satisfied.
Composite Controller Modes
The combination of several controller modes combine the advantages of each mode and, in some cases,
eliminate disadvantages. Composite modes are implemented easily using op amp techniques. Basically,
this consists of simply combining the mode circuits introduced in the previous section.
Proportional-Integral
A simple combination of the proportional and integral circuits provides the proportional-integral mode of
controller action. The resulting circuit is shown in the figure below.

32
For this case, the relation between input and output is most easily found by applying op amp circuit
analysis. We get (including the inverter)

( )
t
R2 1
V out =
R1
V e+ ∫V
R1 C 0 e

Usually the definition of the proportional-integral controller mode includes the proportional gain
in the integral term, so we write

( ) ( )
R2 R2 1 t
V out = V + ∫ V +V ( 0)
R 1 e R 1 R 2 C 0 e out
R2
G p=
The adjustments of this controller are the proportional band through R1 , and the integration gain

1
G I=
Through
R2 C
Proportional-Derivative
This combination is implemented using a circuit similar to that shown in the figure below. Analysis
shows that this circuit responds according to the equation

( ) ( ) ( )
R1 dV out R2 R2 dV e
V out + R3 C = V e+ R3 C +V 0
R1 + R 3 dt R 1 + R3 R1 + R 3 dt

where the quantities are defined in the figure and the output inverter has been included.

This circuit includes the clamp to protect against high gain at high frequency in the derivative term. In
this case, an effective resistance given by
R1 R3
R=
R1 + R3 .Then the condition becomes as usual,2 πf max RC=0 .1 . Assuming this criterion has been

met, the equation for the proportional-derivative response becomes

( ) ( )
R2 R2 dV e
V out = V e+ R3 C +V 0
R 1 + R3 R1 + R 3 dt

33
 R2
G p=
where the proportional gain is R1 + R 3 , and the derivative gain is G D=R3 C . Of course, this mode

still has the offset error of a proportional controller because the derivative term cannot provide reset
action.
PID (Three-Mode).
The ultimate process controller is the one that exhibits proportional, integral, and derivative response to
the process-error input. This mode is characterized by
de (t )
u(t )= K P e (t )+K P K I ∫ e(t )dt +K P K D +u I (0)
dt
Where,
u(t ) is controller output in percent of full scale
K P is the proportional gain

e (t ) is the process error in percent of maximum

K I is the integral gain

K D is the derivative gain

u I ( 0 ) is the initial controller integral output

The zero-error term of the proportional mode is not necessary because the integral automatically
accommodates for offset and nominal setting. This mode can be provided by a straight application of op
amp circuits, resulting in the circuit of the figure below. It must be noted, however, that it is possible to
reduce the complexity of the circuitry of the figure 12 and still realize the three-mode action, but in these
cases an interaction results between derivative and integral gains.

34
We will use this circuit because it is easy to follow in illustrating the principles of implementing this
mode. Analysis of the circuit shows that the output is:

( ) ( ) ( )
R2 R2 1 R2 dV e
−V out =
R1
V e+
R1 RI C I
∫ V e dt +
R1
RDC D
dt
+V out (0 )

NOTES:
These circuits have shown that the direct implementation of controller modes can be provided by standard
op amp circuits. It is necessary, of course, to scale the measurement as a voltage within the range of
operation selected by the circuit. Furthermore, the outputs of the circuits shown have been voltages that
may be converted to currents for use in an actual process-control loop. These circuits are only examples
of basic circuits that implement the controller modes. Many modifications are employed to provide the
controller action with different sets of components.
Additional notes on controllers
Electronic Controllers
The controllers using electrical signals and digital algorithms which perform the control action are known
as electronic controllers. These types of controllers are used where large load changes are encountered
and fast response is required. Electronic controllers are classified based on the control action performed
by the controllers. The classification of controllers based on the control action is listed in Table below.
Control action Controller
Two position or ON–OFF control action Two position ON–OFF controller
Proportional control action Proportional controller
Integral control action Integral controller

Derivative control action Derivative controller

Proportional Integral control action Proportional Integral controller
Proportional Derivative control action Proportional Derivative controller
Proportional Integral Derivative control action Proportional Integral Derivative controller

ON–OFF Controller: ON–OFF control is the simplest form and it drives the manipulated variable from
fully closed to fully open or vice versa depending on the error signal. Due to the simplicity of the
controller, it is very widely used in both industrial and domestic control system. A common example of
ON–OFF control is the temperature control in a domestic heating system. When the temperature is below
the thermostat set point, the heating system is switched on and when the temperature is above the set
point, the heating system is switched off.
Types of ON–OFF Controller: The different ways in which the ON–OFF controller operated are
(i) Two position ON–OFF controller
(ii) Multi-position control (floating control)

35
(i) Two Position ON–OFF Controller: In the two position ON-OFF controller, the output of the
controller changes when the error value changes from positive to negative or vice versa. The simple
electronic device that provides the ON–OFF control action is an electromagnetic relay. It has two
contacts: normally open (NO) and normally closed (NC) contacts. The opening of the contact is
controlled by the relay coil, which when excited changes the contact from one position to another (i.e.
NO→ NC or NC→ NO). The output signal from the controller m (t), based on the actuating error signal
e (t), may be either at a maximum or minimum value.

The block diagram of a two position ON–OFF controller is shown below.

Example of Electronic Two Position ON–OFF Controller: The two-position ON–OFF controller
implemented electronically using a comparator circuit is shown in Figure (d).

36
Neutral Zone: In practical, a differential gap exists when the controller output changes from one position
to another in the two-position ON–OFF control mode of operation. The differential gap existing is known
as neutral zone. Since in two-position ON–OFF controller, the controller output often switches between
two positions, there exists a chattering effect that results in the premature wearing of the component.
Hence, the neutral zone in the two position ON–OFF controller is used to prevent this chattering effect. In
the neutral zone, the controller output will remain in its previous value. The two position ON-OFF
controller with neutral zone is shown below.

Application of Two-Position ON–OFF Controller The two position ON–OFF controller is used in
(a) air conditioning/room heating system
(b) Refrigerator temperature control system
(c) Liquid bath temperature control
(d) liquid-level control in tanks
(ii) Multi-Position Control (Floating Control): The multi-position/floating control is an extension of
two-position ON–OFF control. In this control, the output from the controller can have more than two
values. The multi- position controller reduces the controller cycling rate when compared to the two
position ON–OFF controller. The most common example of multi-position control is the three position
control in which the controller output can have three (0%, 50% and 100%) outputs. The mathematical
description of three position controller is as follows:

Figure below shows the schematic diagram of the three position controller.

37
The multi-position control is difficult to implement with op-amps, mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic
control elements as it is not as popular as two-position ON–OFF controls. Hence, the multi-position
control can be implemented using microprocessor.
Proportional Controller: The proportional (P) controller is simple and the most widely used method of
control. The proportional control is more complex than the ON–OFF control system but simpler than the
conventional PID-controller. Implementation of proportional controller is simple. In a proportional
controller, the error signal is amplified to generate the control (output) signal. The output signal of the
proportional controller m (t), is proportional to the error signal e (t).
In P-controller,

Where Kp is the proportional gain or constant.

Taking Laplace transform, we obtain

Therefore, the transfer function of the P-controller is given by

The block diagram of the P-controller is shown in the Figure below.

38
Proportional Band: The gain in the proportional controller can be referred to the proportional band. The
relationship existing between the proportional band and the proportional gain is given below:

In transfer characteristics, the proportional band is used to represent the maximum percentage of error
that will change the controller output from minimum to maximum. When the controller output is
expressed in per cent, the actual controller output can be found using

Where ma is the actual controller output, K is the transfer gain, m0 is the controller output in per cent and
C is the actual output for 0% controller output.
Example of Electronic P-Controller: The proportional controller can be realized either by an inverting
amplifier followed by a sign changer or by a non-inverting amplifier with adjustable gain. The analysis of
proportional controller using non-inverting amplifier and by using inverting amplifier is given in the
following respectively.
P – Controller using non–inverting amplifier (Circuit diagram)

Equivalent circuit

Analysis
Transfer function of the controller is

39
But the transfer function of the P-controller is

Comparing the above two equations, we obtain

Proportional gain,

P – Controller using inverting amplifier Circuit diagram

Equivalent circuit for inverting amplifier

For sign changer

Analysis: The Assumptions are:

40
(i) Voltages at both inputs are equal
(ii) Input current is zero
Using the above equations, the transfer function of the system is given by

But the transfer function of the P-controller is

Comparing the above two equations, we obtain

Proportional gain,

Advantages of P-controller:
The advantages of P-controller are:
(i) It amplifies the error signal by the gain value Kp.
(ii) It increases the loop gain by Kp.
(iii) It improves the steady-state accuracy, disturbance signal rejection and relative stability.
(iv) The use of controller makes the system less sensitive to parameter variations.
Disadvantages of P-controller
The disadvantages of P-controller are:
(i) System becomes unstable if the gain of the controller increases by large value.
(ii) P-controller leads to a constant steady-state error termed offset.
Integral Controller
The integral (I) controller relates the present error value and the past error value to determine the
controller output. The output signal of the integral controller m (t) is proportional to integral of the input
error signal e (t).
In I-controller,

Where Ki is the integral gain or constant.

Taking Laplace transform, we obtain

41
Therefore, the transfer function of the I-controller is given by

The block diagram of the I-controller is shown in the Figure below

The integral controller is used along with the proportional controller to form the PI - controller or along
with proportional derivative controller to form the PID controller.

Example of Electronic I-Controller:

The integral controller can be realized by an integrator using op-amp followed by a sign changer. The
analysis of such an electronic I-controller is as follows
I-Controller using op-amp Circuit diagram

Equivalent circuit for integrator

42
For sign changer

Analysis
The following Assumptions are made
(i) Voltages at both inputs are equal
(ii) Input current is zero
Using the above equations, the transfer function of the system is given by

But the transfer function of the I-controller is

Comparing the above two equations, we obtain

Integral gain,

Advantages of I-controller
The advantages of I-controller are:

43
(i) It reduces the steady-state error without the help of manual reset. Hence, the controller is also called as
automatic reset.
(ii) It eliminates the error value.
(iii) It eliminates the steady-state error.
Disadvantages of I-controller
The disadvantages of I-controller are:
(i) Action of this controller leads to oscillatory response with increased or decreased amplitude, which is
undesirable and the system becomes unstable.
(ii) It involves integral saturation or wind-up effect.
(iii) There is poor transient response.
Derivative Controller
The derivative controller (D-controller) is also known as a rate or anticipatory controller. The controller
output of the derivative controller is dependent and is proportional to the differentiation of the error with
respect to time. The output signal of the integral controller m (t) is proportional to integral of the input
error signal e (t).
In D-controller,

Where Kd is the derivative gain or constant.

Taking Laplace transform, we obtain

Therefore, the transfer function of the D-controller is given by

The block diagram of the D-controller is shown in the Figure below

44
Example of Electronic D-Controller: The derivative controller can be realized by a differentiator using
op-amp followed by a sign changer. The analysis of such an electronic D - controller is given in the
following
D-controller using op-amp Circuit diagram

Equivalent circuit for differentiator

For sign changer

Analysis
Assumptions made are:
(i) Voltages at both inputs are equal

45
(ii) Input current is zero
Using the above equations, the transfer function of the system is given by

But the transfer function of the D-controller is

Comparing the above two equations, we obtain

Differential gain,

Advantages of D-controller
The advantages of D-controller are:
(i) Feed forward control
(ii) Resists the change in the system
(iii) Has faster response
(iv) Anticipates the error and initiates an early corrective action that increases the stability of the system
(v) Effective during transient period
Disadvantages of D-controller
The disadvantages of D-Controller are:
(i) Steady-state error is not recognized by the controller even when the error is too large.
(ii) This controller cannot be used separately in the system.
(iii) It is mathematically more complex than P-control.
Proportional Integral Controller
The individual advantages of proportional and integral controller can be used by combining the both in
parallel, which results in the PI-controller. The output of the proportional integral controller (PI-
controller) consists of two terms: one proportional to error signal and the other proportional to the integral
of error signal.
In PI-controller,

Where Kp is the proportional gain and Ki is the integral gain.

Taking Laplace transform, we obtain

46
The transfer function of the PI-controller is given by

The block diagram of PI-controller is shown in the Figure below.

The equivalent block diagram of the PI controller is shown in Figure below

Example of Electronic PI-Controller: The PI-controller can be realized by an op-amp integrator with
the gain followed by a sign changer. The analysis of such an electronic PI-controller is given below.

PI – controller using op-amp Circuit diagram

Equivalent circuit for integrator

47
For sign changer

Analysis
The following Assumptions are made
(i) Voltages at both inputs are equal
(ii) Input current is zero
Using the above equations, the transfer function of the system is given by

But the transfer function of the PI-controller is

Comparing the above two equations, we get

Proportional gain,

Integral gain,

48
Advantages of PI-controller
The advantages of PI-Controller are:
(i) Eliminates the offset present in the proportional controller
(ii) Provides faster response than the integral controller due to the presence of proportional controller
also.
(iii) Fluctuation of the system around the set point is minimal
(iv) Has zero steady state error
(v) Form of a feedback control
(vi) Increases the loop gain
Disadvantages of PI-controller
The disadvantages of PI-controller are:
(i) It has maximum overshoot.
(ii) Settling time is more.
Proportional Derivative Controller
The proportional derivative (PD) controller is used in the system to have faster response from the
controller. It combines the proportional and derivative controller in parallel. The output of the
proportional derivative controller consists of two terms: one proportional to error signal and the other
proportional to the derivative of error signal.
In PD controller,

Therefore,

where Kp is the proportional gain and Kd is the derivative gain.

Taking Laplace transform, we obtain

Therefore, the transfer function of the PD-controller becomes

49
The block diagram of PD-controller is shown in the Figure below.

The equivalent block diagram of PD controller is shown below.

Example of Electronic PD-Controller: The PD-controller can be realized by an op-amp differentiator

with the gain followed by a sign changer. The analysis of such an electronic PD-controller is given as
follows,
PD – controller using op-amp Circuit diagram

Equivalent circuit for the differentiator

50
For sign changer

Analysis
Assumptions made
(i) Voltages at both inputs are equal
(ii) Input current is zero
Using the equations, the transfer function of the system is given by

But the transfer function of the PD-controller is

Comparing the above two equations, we get

Proportional gain,

Derivative gain,

51
Advantages of PD-controller
The advantages of PD-controller are:
(i) It has smaller maximum overshoot due to the faster derivative action.
(ii) It eliminates excessive oscillations.
(iii) Damping is increased.
(iv) Rise time in the transient response of the system is lower
Disadvantages of PD-controller
The disadvantages of PD-Controller are:
(i) It does not eliminate the offset.
(ii) It is used in slow systems
Proportional Integral Derivative Controller
The universally used controller in the control system is the proportional integral derivative (PID)
controller. The PID controller combines the advantages of PI- and PD-controllers. It is the parallel
combination of P I and D-controllers. By tuning the parameters in the PID-controller, the control action
for specific process could be obtained. The output of the PID-controller consists of three terms: first one
proportional to error signal, second one proportional to the integral of error signal and the third one
proportional to the derivative of error signal.
In PID-controller,

Therefore,

Where Kp is the proportional gain, Ki is the integral gain and Kd is the derivative gain.
Taking Laplace transform, we obtain

Therefore, the transfer function of the PID-controller is given by

The block diagram of PID-controller is shown below.

52
The equivalent block diagram of PID-controller is shown below

Example of Electronic PID-Controller:

The analysis of electronic PID controller is given in the following
PID controller using op – amp Circuit diagram

Equivalent circuit for amplifier

For sign changer

53
Analysis
Assumptions
(i) Voltages at both inputs are equal
(ii) Input current is zero
Using the above equations, the transfer function of the system is given by

But the transfer function of the PID-controller is

Comparing the above two equations, we get

Proportional gain

Derivative gain

Integral gain

Also,

Advantages of PID-controller

54
The advantages of PID-controller are:
(i) It reduces maximum overshoot
(ii) Steady-state error is zero.
(iii) It increases the stability of the system.
(iv) It improves the transient response of the system.
(v) It is possible to tune the parameters in the controllers.
Disadvantages of PID-controller
The disadvantages of PID-controller are:
(i) It is difficult to use in non-linear systems.
(ii) It is difficult to implement in large industries where complex calculations are required.
PID Controller tuning of Plants
Figure below shows a PID control of a plant. If a mathematical model of the plant can be derived, then it
is possible to apply various design techniques for determining parameters of the controller that will meet
the transient and steady-state specifications of the closed-loop system. However, if the plant is so
complicated that its mathematical model cannot be easily obtained, then an analytical approach to the
design of a PID controller is not possible. Then we must resort to experimental approaches to the tuning
of PID controllers. The process of selecting the controller parameters to meet given performance
specifications is known as controller tuning. Ziegler and Nichols suggested rules for tuning PID

controllers (meaning to set values

K p ,T i andT d ) based on experimental step responses or based on the

value of
K p , that results in marginal stability when only proportional control action is used.

Ziegler-Nichols rules, which are briefly presented in the following, are useful when mathematical models
of plants are not known. (These rules can, of course, be applied to the design of systems with known

mathematical models.) Such rules suggest a set of values of

K p ,T i andT d , that will give a stable
operation of the system. However, the resulting system may exhibit a large maximum overshoot in the
step response, which is unacceptable. In such a case we need series of fine tunings until an acceptable
result is obtained. In fact, the Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules give an educated guess for the parameter

values and provide a starting point for fine tuning, rather than giving the final settings for
K p ,T i andT d ,
in a single shot.

55
Ziegler - Nichols Rules for Tuning PID Controllers.

Ziegler and Nichols proposed rules for determining values of the proportional gain
K p , integral timeT i ,

and derivative timeT d , based on the transient response characteristics of a given plant. Such
determination of the parameters of PID controllers or tuning of PID controllers can be made by engineers
on-site by experiments on the plant. (Numerous tuning rules for PID controllers have been proposed since
the Ziegler-Nichols proposal. They are available in the literature and from the manufacturers of such
controllers.) There are two methods called Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules: the first method and the second
method.
First Method: (known as open loop reaction method). In the first method, we obtain experimentally the
response of the plant to a unit-step input, as shown in the Figure below.

The basic approach is to open the process control loop so that no control action (feedback) occurs. This
usually is done by disconnecting the controller output from the final control element. All of the process
parameters are held at their nominal values. This method can be used only for systems with self-
regulation. At some time, a transient disturbance is introduced by a small, manual change of the
controlling variable using the final control elements. This change should be as small as practical for
making necessary measurements. The controlled variable is measured (recorded) versus time at the
instant of and following the disturbance.
If the plant involves neither integrator(s) nor dominant complex-conjugate poles, then such a unit-step
response curve may look S-shaped, as shown in the Figure below. This method applies if the response to
a step input exhibits an S-shaped curve. Such step-response curves may be generated experimentally or
from a dynamic simulation of the plant.
The S-shaped curve may be characterized by two constants, delay time L and time constant T. The delay
time and time constant are determined by drawing a tangent line at the inflection point of the S-shaped
curve and determining the intersections of the tangent line with the time axis and line c(t) = K, as shown
in the figure.

56
The transfer function C(s)/U(s) may then be approximated by a first-order system with a transport
lag as follows:
C ( s) Ke− Ls
=
U (s) Ts+1

Ziegler and Nichols suggested to a set the values of

K p ,T i andT d , according to the formula shown below.
Type of controller Kp Ti Td

P T ∞ 0
L
PI T L 0
0.9 L 0 .3

PID 1 .2
T 2L 0.5L
L

Notice that the PID controller tuned by the first method of Ziegler-Nichols rules gives

57
Second Method: Ziegler and Nichols also developed another method of controller setting assignment that
has come to be associated with their name. This technique, also called the ultimate cycle method, is based
on adjusting a closed loop until steady oscillations occur. Controller settings are then based on the

conditions that generate the cycling. In the second method, we first set T i=∞ andT d =0 . Using the

proportional control action only (see Figure below), increase

K p from 0 to a critical value K cr at which the
output first exhibits sustained oscillations. (If the output does not exhibit sustained oscillations for

whatever value
K p may take, then this method does not apply.)

Thus, the critical gain K cr , and the corresponding period Pcr , are experimentally determined (see Figure
below).

Ziegler and Nichols suggested that we set the values of the parameters
K p ,T i T d according to the
and
formula shown in Table below.

58
Notice that the PID controller tuned by the second method of Ziegler-Nichols rules gives

−4
s=
Thus, the PID controller has a pole at the origin and double zeros at P cr . Note that if the system

has a known mathematical model (such as the transfer function), then we can use the root-locus method to
2π
=Pcr
find the critical gain K cr and the frequency of the sustained oscillationsω cr , where ωcr . These

values can be found from the crossing points of the root-locus branches with the jω axis. (Obviously, if

the root-locus branches do not cross the jω axis, this method does not apply.)
Comments: Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules (and other tuning rules presented in the literature) have been
widely used to tune PID controllers in process control systems where the plant dynamics are not precisely
known. Over many years, such tuning rules proved to be very useful. Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules can, of
course, be applied to plants whose dynamics are known. (If the plant dynamics are known, many
analytical and graphical approaches to the design of PID controllers are available, in addition to Ziegler-
Nichols tuning rules.)

59
EXAMPLE 1: Consider the control system shown in Figure below in which a PID controller is used to
control the system.

The PID controller has the transfer function

Although many analytical methods are available for the design of a PID controller for the present system,

let us apply a Ziegler-Nichols tuning rule for the determination of the values of parameters
K p ,T i Td
and
then obtain a unit-step response curve and check to see if the designed system exhibits approximately
25% maximum overshoot. If the maximum overshoot is excessive (40% or more), make a fine tuning and
reduce the amount of the maximum overshoot to approximately 25% or less.
Solution
Since the plant has an integrator, we use the second method of Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules. By setting
T i=∞ andT d =0 , we obtain the closed-loop transfer function as follows:

The value of
K p that makes the system marginally stable so that sustained oscillation occurs can be
obtained by use of Routh's stability criterion. Since the characteristic equation for the closed-loop system
is:

The Routh array becomes as follows:

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Examining the coefficients of the first column of the Routh table, we find that sustained oscillation will

occur if
K p = 30. Thus, the critical gain K cr is
K cr =30

With gain
K p set equal to K cr (=30) , the characteristic equation becomes

To find the frequency of the sustained oscillation, we substitute s= jω into this characteristic
equation as follows:

From which we find the frequency of the sustained oscillation to be ω =5 orω=

2
√ 5 . Hence, the
period of sustained oscillation is

Referring to Table above, we determine

K p ,T i andT d as follows:

The transfer function of the PID controller is thus

The PID controller has a pole at the origin and double zero at s = -1.4235. A block diagram of the
control system with the designed PID controller is shown in Figure below. Next, let us examine the
unit-step response of the system. The closed-loop transfer function C( s )/R( s ) is given by

61
62