# Operating System (OS) Notes

## 1. Process Management

A process is a program in execution. The operating system manages processes to ensure efficient executio

- **Process States:**

- **New:** Process is being created.

- **Ready:** Process is waiting for CPU allocation.

- **Running:** Process is currently executing.

- **Blocked (Waiting):** Process is waiting for an event (e.g., I/O completion).

- **Terminated:** Process has finished execution.

- **Suspended Ready:** Process is moved to secondary storage due to memory constraints but can be re

- **Suspended Blocked:** A blocked process that has been swapped out to secondary storage.

- **Scheduling Algorithms:**

- **FCFS (First Come First Serve):** Non-preemptive, processes are executed in order of arrival. Simple b

- **SJF (Shortest Job First):** The process with the shortest execution time is selected first. Optimal but m

- **SRTF (Shortest Remaining Time First):** Preemptive version of SJF, allowing interruption of longer tas

- **Round Robin (RR):** Each process gets a fixed time slice before moving to the next. Ensures fairness

- **Priority Scheduling:** Processes with higher priority execute first. Can be preemptive or non-preemptiv

- **Context Switching:** The process of saving and restoring the state of a process so the CPU can switch

- **Process Control Block (PCB):** A data structure that stores process details such as process ID, state, p

## 2. CPU Scheduling

CPU scheduling determines which process gets CPU time for execution.
- **Schedulers:**

- **Long-Term Scheduler (Job Scheduler):** Controls the admission of processes into the system, affectin

- **Short-Term Scheduler (CPU Scheduler):** Selects which process runs next on the CPU.

- **Mid-Term Scheduler (Swapper):** Moves processes between main memory and disk to optimize syste

- **Starvation & Aging:**

- **Starvation:** Occurs when low-priority processes are ignored due to continuous execution of high-prior

- **Aging:** Prevents starvation by gradually increasing process priority over time.

## 3. Process Synchronization

Ensures correct execution of concurrent processes by handling shared resource access.

- **Critical Section Problem:** A segment of code where shared resources are accessed. A solution must s

1. **Mutual Exclusion:** Only one process can enter the critical section at a time.

2. **Progress:** If no process is in the critical section, one should be able to enter it.

3. **Bounded Waiting:** A process should not wait indefinitely to enter the critical section.

- **Peterson's Algorithm:** A software-based solution for mutual exclusion between two processes.

- **Semaphores:**

- **Binary Semaphore (Mutex):** Used to enforce mutual exclusion.

- **Counting Semaphore:** Allows multiple processes to access a limited number of resources.

- **Dining Philosophers Problem:** A classic synchronization problem dealing with resource sharing among

## 4. Deadlocks

A deadlock occurs when processes are indefinitely waiting for resources held by other processes.

- **Conditions for Deadlock:**

2. **Hold and Wait:** Processes hold some resources while waiting for others.

3. **No Preemption:** Resources cannot be forcibly taken from processes.

4. **Circular Wait:** A circular chain of processes exists, each waiting for a resource held by the next proc

- **Deadlock Prevention:** Avoids deadlock by breaking one of the above conditions.

- **Deadlock Avoidance:** Uses algorithms like Banker's Algorithm to ensure safe resource allocation.

- **Deadlock Detection & Recovery:** Identifies deadlocks and resolves them by terminating processes or p

## 5. Memory Management

Handles memory allocation and deallocation for processes.

- **Paging:** Divides memory into fixed-size blocks (pages), reducing fragmentation.

- **Segmentation:** Divides memory into variable-sized logical sections (segments), leading to external frag

- **Virtual Memory & Demand Paging:** Uses secondary storage as additional memory space, allowing exe

- **Cache Management:** Stores frequently accessed data in fast-access memory to reduce processing tim

## 6. File & Disk Management

Handles data storage, retrieval, and organization on disks.

- **File Systems:** Organize and manage files.

- **Hierarchical:** Uses directories for structured storage.

- **Linked:** Uses pointers to connect file blocks.

- **Indexed:** Uses an index table for fast access.

- **Disk Scheduling Algorithms:**

- **FCFS (First Come First Serve):** Processes requests in arrival order.

- **SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First):** Selects the request closest to the current disk position.

- **SCAN & C-SCAN:** Moves in one direction before reversing, reducing seek time.
## 7. System Calls & OS Structure

System calls allow user programs to request OS services.

- **System Call Types:**

- **Process Control:** Create, terminate, wait (e.g., fork(), exit()).

- **File Management:** Open, close, read, write files.

- **Device Management:** Interact with hardware (e.g., ioctl()).

- **Information Maintenance:** Retrieve system info (e.g., getpid()).

- **Communication:** Send/receive messages (e.g., pipe(), socket()).

- **OS Types:**

- **Monolithic Kernel:** Single large kernel with all OS services (e.g., Linux, Unix).

- **Microkernel:** Minimal kernel with essential services, improving security (e.g., QNX, Minix).

- **Real-Time OS (RTOS):** Guarantees timely task execution (e.g., FreeRTOS, VxWorks).

- **Multiprocessor OS:** Manages multiple CPUs efficiently.

## 8. Inter-Process Communication (IPC)

Enables processes to communicate and synchronize their execution.

- **Shared Memory:** Allows direct memory access for communication.

- **Message Passing:** Uses send/receive mechanisms for communication.

- **Race Conditions:** Occur when multiple processes modify shared data simultaneously. Solved using sy

## 9. Important Formulas

- **Turnaround Time (TAT) = Completion Time - Arrival Time**

- **Waiting Time (WT) = Turnaround Time - Burst Time**

## 10. Expected Exam Questions

1. Solve CPU scheduling problems (SJF, SRTF, Round Robin, Preemptive Priority).

2. Draw Gantt charts and calculate waiting/turnaround times.

3. Explain Process Synchronization (Peterson's Algorithm, Semaphores).

4. Solve Deadlock scenarios (Banker's Algorithm, Prevention methods).

5. Compare Monolithic and Microkernel OS.

6. Describe Process States with a diagram.

7. Discuss Context Switching and PCB.

8. Explain System Calls and IPC mechanisms.

9. Solve Dining Philosophers problem using Semaphores.

10. Explain Aging, Starvation, and solutions.