‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST.

Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

‫المحاضرة االولى‬

Laboratory instruments
'' Laboratory instrument" is a general term for all types of instruments,
vessels, and other tools needed for operations in laboratories. Analytical
lab instruments included a wide range of instrumentation whose principle
purpose is to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze samples. Most
devices are expensive and sensitive and are affected by the environment
such as heat and humidity, so it must be maintained, Periodically clean and
maintain them also calibration for each device to ensure the sensitivity of
the device to obtain accurate results. The instrument must have a long life
and provide safety for the user. Laboratory a room or building are equipped
with instruments ,tools, material &other items using for tests , experiments
,analysis & for teaching, or a place where chemicals or medicines are
produced. The laboratory contains Bench and Locker for storing materials
also the tools and instruments in the laboratory vary according to the
purpose of the laboratory such as microbiology lab, physiology lab,
immunology lab, human biology lab, histology, anatomy lab, chemistrylab
and genetics laboratory ,each laboratory contains special instruments that
we study in detail.

The Microscope

1
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

Microscopes is an instrument used to see objects that are too small to be

seen by the naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small
objects and structures which it is means invisible to the eye unless aided
by a microscope such as microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, and parasite) &
other cells. Antony Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) invented microscope,
which it in 1674 built a simple microscope with only one lens to examine
blood, yeast, insects and many other tiny objects. There are many types of
microscopes, and they may be grouped according to way the instruments
interact with a sample to create images, either by sending a beam of light
or electrons to a sample in its optical path, or by scanning across, and a
short distance from the surface of a sample using a probe. 2 Magnification
of microscope:

*Magnification: defined as the degree of enlargement of the image of the

object achieved by the microscope, the magnifying power consists from
the eyepieces and objectives lens power.

*The working distance is the distance between the objective lens and the
specimen on the stage. The higher the magnifying power of the objective
the shorter is the working distance.

2
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

the total magnification achieved in the below table:

Objective lens Ocular lens Oil Magnification

4x 10 x No 4 X 10 = 40 times

10 X 10 x No 10 X 10 = 100 times

40 X 10 x No 40 X 10 = 400 times

100 X 10 x Yes 100 X 10 =1000 times

Resolution of microscope
ability of a lens to separate or distinguish small objects that are close

3
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

together. It is considered the wavelength of light used is major factor in

resolution (shorter wavelength = greater resolutions it is considered the
resolutionis power to show details clearly. Both the Magnification
&Resolution are needed to see a clear image
Types of Microscopes:

The lens system classification divides the microscope into simple or

compound microscopes

A- Simple microscope consists of a single lens or several lenses grouped

in one unit and are only used to enlarge an object.The lens system ranges
from double convex to two plano-convex lenses. Examples of simple
microscopes include reading glasses, jewelry eyepieces.

Principle Of Simple Microscope

A simple microscope is used to obtain small magnifications. It is usually

to used for study of microscopic algae, fungi and biological specimen. ٠
Light from a light source (mirror) passes through a thin transparent object.
A biconvex lens magnifies the size of the object to get an enlarged virtual
image.

Parts of a Simple Microscope:

1) Mechanical parts 2) Optical parts
4
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

1- Mechanical parts: These parts support the optical parts and help in
their adjustment for focusing the object ,They include the following
components^Met Stand, Stage

2- Optical parts: These parts are involved in passing the light through
the object (specimen) and magnifying its size .The components of the
optical parts are as follows:

٠Mirror: A Plano-convex mirror is fitted below the stage to the vertical

rod by means of a frame. It focuses the surrounding light on the object to
be observed.
٠Lens: A biconvex lens is fitted above.the stage, to the vertical rod, by
means of a frame. It magnifies the size of the object and the enlarged virtual
image formed is observed by keeping the eye above it. For proper focusing,
the lens can be moved up and down by the frame.

B- compound microscope includes an eyepiece and one or more

objectives where the eyepiece enlarges the resolved image created by the
objective. the are many type of compound microscope:
5
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

!-Brightfield microscopy is the most elementary form of microscope

illumination techniques and is generally used with compound microscopes.
"brightfield" is derived from the fact that the specimen is dark and
contrasted by the surrounding bright viewing field. Simple light
microscopes are sometimes referred to as bright field microscopes.

Principle of the bright-field microscopy :

In bright-field microscopy a specimen is placed on the stage of the

microscope and the microscope’s light source is aimed at a lens beneath
the specimen , This lens is called a condenser. The condenser usually
contains an aperture diaphragm to control and focus light on the specimen;
light passes through the specimen and the is collected by an objective lens
situated in a turret above the stage.

in transmitting light microscopes the illumination system is very

important. The system includes the light source, condenser, and iris. A
condenser is usually a combination of lenses that gathers and concentrates
light in a specified direction, under the stage. The iris controls the intensity
of the light that goes into the condenser. The light source is a variety of
bulbs that create just the right kind of light with little heat.

6
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

Difference Between Simple And Compound Microscope

Characteristics Simple Microscope Compound Microscope
Number of lenses One to magnify objects 3-5 to magnify objects
Condenser lens Absent Present
Light source Natural Illuminator
Mirror type Concave reflecting One side is plain and the other
side is concave
Magnifying power Up to 300X 2,00OX
Adjusting No Yes
Magnification

7
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

Used At basic level By professional for research

purpose

The electron microscope:

Is a type of microscope that uses electrons to illuminate a specimen
and create an enlarged image. Electron microscopes have much greater
resolving power and higher magnifications. Some electron microscopes
can magnify specimens up to 2 million times. The greater resolution and
magnification of the electron microscope is due to the wavelength of an
electron can be up to 100,000 times shorter than that of visible light
photons, so can reveal the structure of smaller objects .

** Components of Electron Microscope:

1. Electron gun

2. Electromagnetic lensesthree sets.

3. Image viewing and recording system. Electron gun is a heated tungsten

filament, which generates electrons. Condenser lens focuses the electron
beam on the specimen. A second condenser lens forms the electrons into a
thin tight beam.

8
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

**There are two main types of electron microscope:

1- The transmission electron microscope (TEM) : TEM forms image
when radiations pass and are transmitted through the specimen, is used to
view thin specimens or for viewing internal features that are inside or
beyond the surface (e.g. organelles, macromolecules, atoms).

2-The scanning EM (SEM): SEM produces images by detecting

secondary electrons which are emitted from the surface of the specimen
due to excitation by the primary electron beam. Therefore SEM is used to
examine the surfaces of the microorganisms in great detail. like study the
atomic composition of specimens, example, the surface distribution of
immune-labels.

9
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

‫المحاضرة الثانية‬
Laboratory Equipment and Functions
Name Picture Use
Used to measure
Thermometer temperature

Used to measure and

dispense small amounts
Pipet of liquids (ex. 1 mL)

Mixing very small

Well plate amounts of chemicals
together and comparing
results.
Used to seal or stop
Corks flasks or test tubes.

used to heat substances

Hot plate that may be flammable.

Flask with a round body

Florence flask and flat bottom. Used to
hold and heat liquids.

10
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

Graduated Measuring specific

cylinder amounts of liquids (65
mL)

Measuring/removing
Spatula small amounts of solids
or powders (often when
obtaining mass)

Used to wash down

Wash bottle specific pieces of
equipment with water or
keep materials moist.

Used to measure and

Micropipets dispence very small
amounts of liquids. (ex.
0.5 mL)

Measuring specific
amounts of liquids (often
Burette determining amounts of
acids or bases needed)
(ex. 13 mL( .

Used to obtain small

amounts of liquids (not
Dropper precise)

11
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

Supports a beaker over a

Iron ring bunsen burner. Wire
gauze is usually placed
on top of this structure.

Used to hold a test tube

Utility clamp or other piece of
equipment in place on a
ring stand.

Suspending glassware
Wire gauze over the Bunsen burner

Transport a hot beaker;

Tongs remove lid from
crucible.

Obtaining the mass of an

Triple-beam object
balance

Heating contents in a test

Test tube clamp tube

12
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

Heating (flame-safe)
contents in the lab
Bunsen burner

Used in dissection to
Forceps grasp tissues or pick up
small items.

Used to grind down

File materials or sharpen
items.
Used to clean the inside
Wire brush of test tubes or graduated
cylinders
Holding many test tubes
Test tube rack filled with chemicals (or
for drying after washing)

Used to pour liquids into

Funnel containers with small
openings; also used to
hold filter paper

Scooping
Scoopula solids/powders.

13
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

Supports the bunsen

burner, iron ring,
pipestem triangle, and
Ring stand other items, often while
heating a substance.

Evaporating Used to evaporate excess

dish solvents to create a more
concentrated solution.
Holds small amounts of
liquids for mixing or
Test tubes heating.

Holding water (also used

to heat liquids)
Beaker

Narrow-mouthed
container used to
Erlenmeyer transport, heat, or store
flask substance. Often used
when a stopper is
required.

14
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

Flask calibrated to
contain a precise volume
at a particular
Volumetric flask temperature. Used for
precise dilutions and
creating standard
solutions.
Keeping liquid contents
Watch glass in a beaker from
splattering

Used to grind chemicals

Mortar & pestle to powder

A cylindrical container
made of plastic and used
Petri dishes to culture cells, fungi
and bacteria

Long shirt worn by

medical professionals to
Lab coats protect against chemicals
and pollutants

It is used to protect the

Safety goggles eyes from flying
particles, water or
chemicals

15
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

Used to protect hands

from chemicals
gloves

16
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

‫المحاضرة الثالثة‬

Centrifuge
It is an equipment that makes object revolve around in a fixed axis (spins
it in a circle) by applying centrifugal force to the axis of spin at a different
speed for separation of two immiscible material. Generally, comprise a
rotor mainly made of aluminium is very compact and it contains two, four,
six, or more numbered wells are using for put the tubes of sample.

Principles of centrifugation
Centrifugation is a technique used for the separation of particles using a
centrifugal field. The particles are suspended in liquid medium and placed
in a centrifuge tube. The tube is then placed in a rotor and spun at a
definitive speed. Rotation of the rotor about a central axis generates a
centrifugal force upon the particles in the suspension.

Two forces counteract the centrifugal force acting on the suspended

particles:

 Buoyant force: This is the force with which the particles must displace
the liquid media into which they sediment.

 Frictional force: This is the force generated by the particles as they

migrate through the solution.

Particles move away from the axis of rotation in a centrifugal field only
when the centrifugal force exceeds the counteracting buoyant and
frictional forces resulting in sedimentation of the particles at a constant
rate.Particles which differ in density, size or shape sediment at different
rates.
17
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

The rate of sedimentation depends upon:

1. The applied centrifugal field

2. Density and radius of the particle.

3. Density and viscosity of the suspending medium

Type of centrifuge:
1- General-purpose centrifuges: can be using for many
applications, which include a variety of rotors and speed (up to
5000 rpm), common in clinical specimens such :blood
(plasma/serum separation) and urine sample.

Test tube: for isolation, the serum from

blood & other sample or material, may
be made of plastic or glassware with
color top.
EDTA tube: for isolation, the plasma
form blood.
Gel tube: It has no anticoagulant,
usingfor isolation the serum form whole
blood Note/ for separation blood put the
tube in the centrifuge for 5–10 min at
3000-5000 rpm

18
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

General centrifuges

19
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

2- Micro centrifuges: are used to small volumes separation such

biological molecules, cells, or nucleus. Micro centrifuge tubes
generally hold 0.5 - 2.0 mL of liquid, by angular speeds of 12,000–
15,000 rpm.

3- Refrigerated centrifuges: for samples, that requiring cool

temperatures such DNA, RNA, protein &mitochondrial. This
centrifuge should be able to run at its maximum speed and still
maintain a consistent temperature. Speed range up to 15,000 rpm.

4- Haematocrit centrifuges are using to measure the volume

percentage of red blood cells in whole blood.

20
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

Hematocrit centrifuges:
Devices used to determine the blood’s hematocrit—the ratio of red
blood cell volume to whole blood volume, expressed as a percentage.
By put the blood in wintrobe tube or capillary tube and put in hematocrit
centrifuges.

Parts of hematocrit centrifuge:

1) Lid

2) Rotor (rotating plate).

3) Centrifuge heads (carriers): that spins on the rotor.

4) Grooves in plate to hold haematocrit tubes.

5) The centrifuge head contains the cups that cover the rotor.

21
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

22
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

Haematocrit centrifuges parts

Balances
are essential laboratory instruments that are widely used for weighing of
various substances (powders, crystals and others) in the laboratory. For
instance, to prepare reagents, stains and culture media, balances are
required to weigh accurately and precisely within the needed range.

Types of balances in medical laboratory may be:

a) Rough balances (mechanical balances).

b) Analytical balances (Sensitive balance).

23
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

a) Rough balances:

Rough balances are mechanical balances found in several

types, some of them comprise is sliding scale and some have a
single or double pan. While it operating, not require mains
electricity or battery power and less expensive than analytical
balances.

It is using in:

1. To weigh large amounts (gram to several kilograms).

2. When a high degree of accuracy is not required.

b) Analytical balances ( Sensitive balance):

Sensitive balances are electronic balances that comprise of single pan

balances that use an electron magnetic force instead of weights and found
in inside a glass case. It requires mains electricity or battery power.
Sensitive balances are a highly sensitive instrument that most used
balances in medical laboratories to provide a precision and accuracy for
reagent and standard preparation.

It is using in:
1. To weigh small quantities usually in gram (gm) to mili gram (mg) range.
24
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

2. When great accuracy is required.

Analytical balances

Operating and care of Sensitive balances

1. Always handle a balance with care.

2. Position the balance on a bench away from vibration and direct sunlight.

3. Before starting to weigh, zero the balance as directed by press the TARE
or ZERO.

4. Put the container (dish, a beaker, a piece of folded paper or filter paper)
and weigh the container first.

5. Press the TARE or ZERO button to get a reading of 0.00 g.

6. Put the material, and weigh the material at room temperature in a

weighing the container. Never put the material directly on the balance pan.

7.When you're finished with the balance, return the weights back to zero.
Then it will be ready for the next person to use it.

8. Always use forceps to add or remove the material.

25
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

9. Protect the balances from dust, moisture and fungal growth.

10. Use small brush to remove any chemical, which may have been spilt
on the balance.

11. Keep the balance is clean.

26
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

‫المحاضرة الرابعة‬
Sterilization
Sterilization: defined as the destruction or removal of all
microorganisms (virus, bacteria, fungus) and their spores by
applying heat, irradiation, and filtration.

Disinfection: is the destruction of many microorganisms but

not usually the bacterial spores such a chemical agents &
detergent.

Sterilization methods
 Sterilization by heat
 Sterilization by steam
 Sterilization by dry heat
 Sterilization by radiation
 Chemical sterilization

Sterilization by saturated steam with high pressure using

(autoclave)
Dry heat (oven) is the most common method available for ease
of use.

Autoclave:
The autoclave is a pressure metal chamber provides the moist heat
used to sterilization by applying a high pressure and high
27
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

temperature steam. A basic autoclave is similar to a pressure cooker

is a device for heating the water above 100oC under pressure.
Autoclave can sterilize anything that can withstand a temperature of
121oC for 15 minutes.

 French merchant Charles Chamberlain invented this device in

1879.
 The word autoclave is composed of the two Greek words;
Namely, automatic and key-lock in Latin.

Uses Autoclave
An autoclave is used in medical applications to sterilize: surgical
tools, laboratory tools, culture media and other materials. It can
sterilize solids &liquids material. Use the power of steam to kill
bacteria, spores and germs resistant to boiling water and detergents.
Also using for sterilize the medical waste. The autoclave uses in
industrial applications such vulcanization of rubber &the aerospace
industry.

28
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

Disadvantages of sterilization by autoclave

 A device (steam sterilizer) that requires expertise to maintain to
keep it in working condition.
 Requires strict adherence to time, temperature and pressure.
 Repeated sterilization cycles can damage the cutting edges of the
machines (eg the scissors(.
 It cannot be used to sterilize plastic materials that cannot
withstand temperatures high.

29
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

Hot air ovens:

Hot air ovens are electrical devices, which use dry high temperatures for
many times to sterilize. The ovens use conduction to sterilize items by
heating the outside surfaces of the item, which then absorbs the heat and
moves it towards the center of the item.

Generally, they can be operated from 50 to 300 °C, contain a

thermostat for control on the temperature.
Their double walled insulation keeps the heat in and conserves
energy.
The commonly-used temperatures and time that hot air ovens need
to sterilize materials is:
-160 °C for 60 minutes.
-170 °C for 30 minutes.

Advantages of sterilization by hot air ovens

30
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

 Dry heat reaches all tool surfaces, including machines that

cannot be used disassembled.
 Protect sharp objects or tools with a cutting edge.
 Leaves no chemical residue.
 Eliminates "wet pack" problems in humid climates.

Disadvantages of hot air oven sterilization

 Materials made of plastic and rubber cannot be sterilized by
dry heat Because the temperatures used (160-170°C) are too
high for these Materials.
 Dry heat penetrates the material slowly and unevenly.

Flame sterilization
In this method the material is passed over a Bunsen flame, but not heated
to redness. Materials such as lancets, nozzles of test tubes, flasks, and
slides are passed the glass over the flame several times. This method kills
vegetative cells, there is not This ensures that germs are eliminated as a
result of this short exposure. This style It is also limited to those materials
that can be exposed to flame. Cracking may occur Glassware.

Radiosterilization
Many types of radiation are used for sterilization, such as

31
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

- electromagnetic radiation (such as gamma rays , X-rays and

ultraviolet(
- particulate radiation such as (beam-E.)
Ultraviolet light irradiation)UV)
 Ultraviolet rays have been used to help disinfect the air for more
than 50 years , UV rays stop infection in the air in closed
environments.
 Ultraviolet rays can only kill living organisms minutes directly
exposed to x-ray light ultraviolet. Surfaces are not accessible her
by ultraviolet radiation
Gamma radiation sterilization
 It is usually used to sterilize medicines In final packaging an
sterilization of gas, liquids and solids and disposable cosmetics and
gloves Urinalysis tubes and test tubes. and medical equipment,
such as syringes needles
rays-X radiation sterilization
 X-rays are a form of ionizing energy and they can sterilize Medical
devices. It is an electricity based process and it does not require any
electricity chemicals or radioactive materials. At present, x-rays are
not An official method for sterilizing medicines and medical
devices.

E-beam sterilization

32
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

 The beam-E sterilization method has recently attracted more

attention for device sterilization Medical and has many advantages
such as being safe, no emissions and high processing speed Exposure
time is short

Chemical sterilization

Chemical sterilization is used to sterilize and sterilize objects that have

been damaged by steam, high pressure, dry heat sterilization, or
sterilization. In the case of the device, sterilization is not available.

Ethylene oxide (EtO) sterilization

 Use ethylene oxide (EO) as a low temperature sterilizer in the field

Health care since 1950. It is a colorless, odorless, and flammable
gas.
 It is used to sterilize sensitive surgical instruments For heat and
moisture, such as plastics and precision instruments.

Gas plasma sterilization )hydrogen peroxide based(

 Gas sterilizes at a low temperature for many heat-sensitive medical

devices and humidity
 The sterilization cycle takes between 45-55 minutes.
 Does not penetrate well, and cannot be used on paper or linen.

33
‫مرحلة اولى‬/‫أجهزة مختبرية نظري‬ ASST. Lecturer : Liqaa Al-Zuhairi

34