E RIC DIGEST

JUNE 1994 NUMBER 92 EDO-EA-94-7

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provides, the learning it permits, or self-efficacy, they will be more apt to

Student Motivation the feelings of accomplishment it accept the risks inherent in learning.
to Learn evokes” (Mark Lepper l988). An ex-
trinsically motivated student performs
Conversely, when children do not
view themselves as basically compe-
by Linda S. Lumsden “in order to obtain some reward or tent and able, their freedom to engage
avoid some punishment external to in academically challenging pursuits
the activity itself,” such as grades, and capacity to tolerate and cope with

I nfants and young children

appear to be propelled by curi-
osity, driven by an intense need
to explore, interact with, and make
stickers, or teacher approval (Lepper).
The term motivation to learn has
a slightly different meaning. It is de-
fined by one author as “the meaning-
failure are greatly diminished.
Once children start school, they
begin forming beliefs about their
school-related successes and failures.
sense of their environment. As one fulness, value, and benefits of aca- The sources to which children at-
author puts it, “Rarely does one hear demic tasks to the learner—regardless tribute their successes (commonly ef-
parents complain that their pre- of whether or not they are intrinsi- fort, ability, luck, or level of task dif-
schooler is ‘unmotivated’ “ (James cally interesting” (Hermine Marshall ficulty) and failures (often lack of
Raffini 1993). 1987). Another notes that motivation ability or lack of effort) have impor-
Unfortunately, as children grow, to learn is characterized by long-term, tant implications for how they ap-
their passion for learning frequently quality involvement in learning and proach and cope with learning situa-
seems to shrink. Learning often be- commitment to the process of learn- tions.
comes associated with drudgery in- ing (Carole Ames 1990). The beliefs teachers themselves
stead of delight. A large number of have about teaching and learning and
students—more than one in four— the nature of the expectations they
What Factors Influence the
leave school before graduating. Many hold for students also exert a power-
Development of Students’
more are physically present in the ful influence (Raffini). As Deborah
Motivation?
classroom but largely mentally ab- Stipek ( 1988) notes, “To a very large
sent; they fail to invest themselves According to Jere Brophy (1987), degree, students expect to learn if
fully in the experience of learning. motivation to learn is a competence their teachers expect them to learn.”
Awareness of how students’ atti- acquired “through general experience Schoolwide goals, policies, and
tudes and beliefs about learning de- but stimulated most directly through procedures also interact with class-
velop and what facilitates learning for modeling, communication of expecta- room climate and practices to affirm
its own sake can assist educators in tions, and direct instruction or social- or alter students’ increasingly com-
reducing student apathy. ization by significant others (espe- plex learning-related attitudes and be-
cially parents and teachers).” liefs.
Children’s home environment And developmental changes
What Is Student Motivation? shapes the initial constellation of atti- comprise one more strand of the mo-
Student motivation naturally has tudes they develop toward learning. tivational web. For example, although
to do with students’ desire to partici- When parents nurture their children’s young children tend to maintain high
pate in the learning process. But it natural curiosity about the world by expectations for success even in the
also concerns the reasons or goals welcoming their questions, encourag- face of repeated failure, older stu-
that underlie their involvement or ing exploration, and familiarizing dents do not. And although younger
noninvolvement in academic activi- them with resources that can enlarge children tend to see effort as uni-
ties. Although students may be their world, they are giving their chil- formly positive, older children view it
equally motivated to perform a task, dren the message that learning is as a “double-edged sword” (Ames).
the sources of their motivation may worthwhile and frequently fun and To them, failure following high effort
differ. satisfying. appears to carry more negative impli-
A student who is intrinsically When children are raised in a cations—especially for their
motivated undertakes an activity “for home that nurtures a sense of self- self-concept of ability—than failure
its own sake, for the enjoyment it worth, competence, autonomy, and that results from minimal or no effort.

CLEARINGHOUSE ON EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT • UNIVERSITY OF OREGON

 Are There Advantages to Intrinsic tasks should be challenging but proaching a problem instead of giving
Motivation? achievable. Relevance also promotes up; and (3) attribute their failures to
Does it really matter whether stu- motivation, as does “contextualizing” insufficient effort, lack of informa-
dents are primarily intrinsically or ex- learning, that is, helping students to tion, or reliance on ineffective strate-
trinsically oriented toward learning? see how skills can be applied in the gies rather than to lack of ability
A growing body of evidence suggests real world (Lepper). Tasks that in- (Brophy 1986).
that it does. volve “a moderate amount of discrep- Other potentially useful strategies
When intrinsically motivated, ancy or incongruity” are beneficial include the following: portray effort
students tend to employ strategies that because they stimulate students’ curi- as investment rather than risk, portray
demand more effort and that enable osity, an intrinsic motivator (Lepper). skill development as incremental and
them to process information more In addition, defining tasks in domain-specific, focus on mastery
deeply (topper). terms of specific, short-term goals (Brophy 1986).
J. Condry and J. Chambers can assist students to associate effort Because the potential payoff—
(1978) found that when students were with success (Stipek). Verbally noting having students who value learning
confronted with complex intellectual the purposes of specific tasks when for its own sake—is priceless, it is
tasks, those with an intrinsic orienta- introducing them to students is also crucial for parents, teachers, and
tion used more logical information- beneficial (Brophy 1986). school leaders to devote themselves
gathering and decision-making strate- Extrinsic rewards, on the other fully to engendering, maintaining,
gies than did students who were ex- hand, should be used with caution, for and rekindling students’ motivation to
trinsically oriented. they have the potential for decreasing learn.
Students with an intrinsic orien- existing intrinsic motivation.
tation also tend to prefer tasks that are What takes place in the class-
RESOURCES
moderately challenging, whereas ex- room is critical, but “the classroom is
Ames, Carole A. “Motivation: What
trinsically oriented students gravitate not an island” (Martin Maehr and Teachers Need to Know.” Teachers
toward tasks that are low in degree of Carol Midgley 1991). Depending on College Record 91, 3 (Spring 1990):
their degree of congruence with class- 409-21.
difficulty. Extrinsically oriented stu- Brophy, Jere. On Motivating Students.
dents are inclined to put forth the room goals and practices, schoolwide Occasional Paper No. 101 . East Lan-
minimal amount of effort necessary to goals either dilute or enhance class- sing, Michigan: Institute for Research
on Teaching, Michigan State Univer-
get the maximal reward (Lepper). room efforts. To support motivation sity, October 1986. 73 pages. ED 276
Although every educational ac- to learn, school-level policies and 724.
practices should stress “learning, task ________ “Synthesis of Research on Strat-
tivity cannot, and perhaps should not, egies for Motivating Students To
be intrinsically motivating, these find- mastery, and effort” (Maehr and Learn.” Educational Leadership (Octo-
ings suggest that when teachers can Midgley) rather than relative perfor- ber 1987): 4048. EJ 362 226.
mance and competition. Condry, J., and J. Chambers. “Intrinsic
capitalize on existing intrinsic moti- Motivation and the Process of Learn-
vation, there are several potential ing.” In The Hidden Casts of Reward
benefits. edited by M.R. Lepper and D. Greene.
What Can Be Done To Help 61-84. Hillsdale, New Jersey:
Unmotivated Students? Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.,
1978.
How Can Motivation To Learn Be A first step is for educators to Lepper, Mark R. “Motivational Consider-
Fostered in the School Setting? recognize that even when students use ations in the Study of Instruction.”
Cognition and Instruction 5, 4 (1988):
Although students’ motivational strategies that are ultimately self-de- 289-309.
histories accompany them into each feating (such as withholding effort, Maehr, Martin L., and Carol Midgley.
cheating, procrastination, and so “Enhancing Student Motivation: A
new classroom setting, it is essential Schoolwide Approach.” Educational
for teachers to view themselves as forth), their goal is actually to protect Psychologist 26, 3 & 4 (1991):
“active socialization agents capable their sense of self-worth (Raffini). 399-427.
A process called attribution re- Marshall, Hermine H. “Motivational Strat-
of stimulating . . . student motivation egies of Three Fifth-Grade Teachers.”
to learn” (Brophy 1987). training, which involves modeling, The Elementary School Journal 88, 2
Classroom climate is important. socialization, and practice exercises, (November 1987): 135-50. EJ 362 747.
Raffini, James. Winners Without Losers:
If students experience the classroom is sometimes used with discouraged Structures and Strategies for Increas-
as a caring, supportive place where students. The goals of attribution re- ing, Student Motivation to Learn. Bos-
training are to help students to (1) ton: Allyn and Bacon, 1993. 286 pages.
there is a sense of belonging and ev- Stipek, Deborah. Motivation To Learn:
eryone is valued and respected, they concentrate on the tasks rather than From Theory to Practice. Englewood
will tend to participate more fully in becoming distracted by fear of fail- Cliffs. New Jersey: Prentice, Hall,
ure; (2) respond to frustration by re- 1988. 178 pages.
the process of learning.
Various task dimensions can also tracing their steps to find mistakes or
foster motivation to learn. Ideally, figuring out alternative ways of ap-

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