THE UNITED STATES IN THE CARIBBEAN, 1776-1985

The United States Influence in the Caribbean

The Caribbean had been under European domination for three centuries: 15th to

18th. The region had been a centre of colonization, trade and a base for expansion

into North, Central and South America. In addition, it was the arena for almost

continuous rivalry and conflict among European nations as they competed with each

other for naval and territorial supremacy.

By the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, Britain had emerged over France, Spain

and the Netherlands (Dutch) as the most viable, imperial and naval power in the

West Indies. However, Britain’s supremacy was short lived when it was effectively

challenged by the USA, a new nation which had emerged on the world scene when

the thirteen British North American colonies finally won their independence from

Britain.

After American independence, the U.S. was prohibited from trading with the

British West Indies by the Navigation Acts. After independence, the viable North

American and British West Indian trade of the 17th and 18th century was severely

reduced. American trading activities in the Caribbean were largely shifted from

the British to the French colonies, primarily, St. Domingue. American commercial

interests in the Caribbean countries continued and increased throughout the 18th

and 19th centuries.

The strength of the United States as a world power was first demonstrated in the

western hemisphere in 1898 during the Spanish-American war. In the early years

of the 20th century, American policy was described as a ‘’Big Stick’’ policy because

of the aggressive nature of its attitude towards the developing Caribbean

republics. The construction of the Panama Canal during this period and the

determination of the American Government to make the Caribbean an ‘’American

Lake’’ were largely responsible for this attitude.

From about 1912 to the early 1930s, the U.S. policy in the Caribbean has been

described as Dollar Diplomacy. During this period, American dollars were pumped

into republics which were plagued with political and economic unrest in an effort to

bring about peace and stability and exclude any other foreign power from the Canal

Zone.

By 1933, the American image in the western hemisphere had been badly tarnished.

In an effort to remedy this, the Good Neighbour Policy was adopted. During this

period, the American government attempted to act in accordance with the

principles of ‘’Good Neighbour’’ policy. Acts of aggression were severely reduced.

Factors which influenced United States in the Caribbean up to 1962

1) National defence and security were primary factors which influenced the

United States’ interest in the Caribbean. The U.S. wanted to create a

situation which would protect them from against enemy attack and help to

retain supremacy over the area. Hence, the U.S. constructed military bases

and centres and maintained military training facilities in the Caribbean. In

addition, the U.S. put measures place to justify her intervention, if and when

it became necessary for example, the Platt Amendment and the Roosevelt

Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.

2) The U.S. was considered the foremost champion of democracy especially

since the First World War hence, President Woodrow Wilson from 1913, was

concerned with promoting constitutionally elected governments. He believed

 that it was the moral responsibility of the U.S. to promote democratic

government in territories which lay within its sphere of interest.

3) Around the beginning of the 20th century, Britain became less capable of

maintaining its world-wide control of the seas, and so gave up strategic

control over the Caribbean to the United States.

4) The independent territories were of great importance to the U.S. because

members of the United Nations, their votes in support of the U.S. were

especially useful in ‘’Cold War’’ (ideological conflict between the U.S. and the

Soviet Union) politics.

5) The United States was concerned about territorial ambitions of France and

Germany in areas of trade and investment. The reason for this war was that

the U.S. felt its own potential for expansion in the region was threatened.

6) The U.S. had investments in the Caribbean which were of economic

importance in Cuba, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, in areas such as

tobacco, sugar, mining industries, banking, and railways. These vital interests

needed to be protected and required its intervention when considered

necessary.

7) The U.S. wanted to construct a canal across Central America which became

known as the Panama Canal. This canal would link the Pacific and Atlantic

fleets. Hence, it was important that these territories maintain political

stability and economic progress to prevent foreign interference which

threaten American control.

8) The U.S. wanted to spread some of the benefits of their ‘’superior’’

civilization to their southern neighbours, e.g. building of schools and

hospitals, eradicating diseases, improving agricultural methods and

 techniques, improving communication and other public works, and providing

for more efficient and honest administration.

Reasons for the United States Intervention in the following territories

Cuba (1898)

Cuba was of strategic importance to the U.S. because it lay across the mouth of

the Gulf of Mexico and blocked the United States’ access to the Caribbean. Cuba

commanded the important shipping lanes of the Yucatan Channel and the Florida

Strait. Havana, the capital and main port of Cuba was the key port in the Spanish

trade system.

From 1825 to 1859, the United States made several attempts to purchase Cuba. In

1825, they asked for Cuba as a security for a loan to Spain but were refused. In

1848, President Polk of the U.S. offered $100 million but was refused. In 1852,

President Pierce also offered $100 million and hinted that he would go up to $130

million if necessary. In 1854, President Pierce offered $120 million unsuccessfully.

The last attempt made in 1859 failed. After that, the U.S. resorted to economic,

diplomatic, ideological, and military reasons from 1868 to 1898 to intervene in

Cuba. These reasons included the protection of U.S. investments, Spain’s failure to

emancipate slaves and grant internal self-government, the fact that other powers

had imperial designs in the region and the blowing of a U.S. battleship in Havana

Harbour.

In 1895, a new revolution for independence had started in Cuba. The U.S. urged

Spain to terminate the fighting because American commerce and interests had

suffered heavily. However, the revolutionaries continued because of their desire

for independence. As a result, the government sent the battleship, USS Maine to

Cuba in January 1898. The battleship was blown up in Havana Harbour and about

260 Americans were killed. The U.S. blamed Spain and demanded its withdrawal

from Cuba. Spain refused and the U.S. declared war on Spain in April 1898. After

three months of fighting, the Spanish Army surrendered at Santiago. In December

1898, by the Treaty of Paris, Spain recognized the independence of Cuba. From

1898 to 1903, the U.S. occupied Cuba militarily in order to ‘’Americanize’’ Cuba

before complete independence.

Puerto Rico (1898)

Puerto Ricans agitated for home rule throughout most of the 19th century and

ended in 1898 when Spain introduced the Charter of Autonomy which granted self-

government to the Puerto Ricans. Under this Charter, Puerto Ricans were given an

elected chamber of Representatives and a 15- member Council of Administration (a

Senate), eight of whom were elected by Puerto Rico, the remaining seven were

nominated by the Governor General appointed by the Crown.

Under the Charter, general elections were held in March 1898. For the first time

Puerto Ricans were free from Spanish government restrictions since the Spanish

settled on the island. However, this freedom was short-lived when the Spanish

American war of 1898 spread to all and by August, the island was taken. Most of

the Puerto Ricans welcomed the American soldiers and there was little resistance.

The Puerto Ricans thought that they would be better off materially and politically

under the United States.

The Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico were made American territories, but not

American States. The U.S. had to pay Spain $20 million for the loss of these
territories. The important constitutional change made by Puerto Rico earlier in the

year no longer existed since Puerto Rico changed her Spanish ‘’master’’ for an

American ‘’master’’.

The United States wanted to control Puerto Rico because:

1. The island was strategically located. Puerto Rico commanded the eastern

approach to the Caribbean and so was of great geographic and strategic

importance to the United States. The control of the Caribbean was critical

to the control of the waters including the Gulf of Mexico which was adjacent

to the United States.

2. The island was close to the mainland. United States’ control of the island

would reduce the risk of European powers controlling and spreading their

ideologies there.

3. Puerto Rico was an ideal location for the construction of a base to help

protect a Central American canal. A canal was essential for the easy

movement of the United States’ Pacific and Atlantic fleets as well as for the

United States’ trade. From this base, the United States could better

‘’police’’ and control the Caribbean as its own ‘’backyard’’.

4. Puerto Rico was an important investment outlet for North Americans who

pumped millions of dollars into agro-exports especially sugar and tobacco.

There were large investments in banking, public utilities, and manufacturing

that were sustained by cheap Puerto Rican labour.

5. Puerto Rico provided a market for the surplus products from American

factories and food from American farms.

6. Puerto Rico provided the United States with raw materials primarily tobacco

and sugar which enjoyed protective tariffs in the American market.

Panama (1904)

The Spanish-American War had made the United States realized that there was an

urgent need for a canal through Central America to facilitate the rapid movement

of troops between the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. When the war broke out, it

took out the USS Oregon more than two months to sail from California around

Cape Horn to the scene of the battle in Cuba. The war was almost over before the

ship arrived.

As a result, a canal was needed for the following reasons:

1. A canal would provide a shorter route for defensive purposes. After the war,

the U.S. had acquired territories and trading interests including Puerto Rico,

Guam, Philippines, and Cuba in both the Atlantic and Pacific. Hence, there

was a need for quick communication between the two oceans so as to have

easier access to these territories.

2. The U.S. had extended its boundaries to the Pacific Coast, and so there was

an additional need for quick communication to facilitate trade between the

eastern and western parts of the country.

3. A canal would help the U.S. to expand its sphere of influence in the

Caribbean and it would place it in a position to enforce its ‘’police’’ powers

over region and prevent European intervention in the region.

4. It would give the U.S. a political foothold in Central America as the canal

would exercise direct control over the zone.

Before the United States could build the canal, it had to free itself from an

arrangement with Britain (Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 in which the U.S. and

Britain agreed to share in the construction and control of a canal), buy the rights

from a French company and obtain permission from the Colombian Government.
President Roosevelt instigated a revolution in Panama when Colombia revoked the

agreement in 1903 to allow the United States to build a canal on Colombian soil.

The Panamanian Government gave the United States a canal zone through its

territory for $10 million down and $250 000 every year. The canal was started in

1904 and opened for shipping in 1914. The canal Zone was garrisoned by U.S.

marines. The Panama Canal dominated U.S. policy and strategy in the Caribbean in

the 20th century.

Haiti (1915)

The United States primarily had a trading relationship with Haiti at the beginning

of the 20c. Compared to France and Germany, the U.S. only had a small amount of

investments in Haiti. By 1910, the Americans controlled about 60% of Haiti’s

import trade and the National Railway Company had a concession to build a railway

from Port-au-Prince to Cap Haitien. In addition, some Americans acquired a 50%

share in the Banque Nationale which was the sole depository of the Haitian

treasury that served the government’s growing indebtedness.

Haiti was characterized by political instability with seven presidents between 1900

and 1915. Three of these were murdered by the Cacos (armies of paid mercenaries)

to make way for rivals. Haiti’s financial condition was made worse by continuous

revolutions and by 1915, the government owned $32 million to European creditors.

Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States was of the view that the political

situation required the creation of a U.S. customs receivership. However, none of

Haiti’s Presidents seemed inclined to accept President Wilson’s suggestion except

Vilbrun Guilaume who took office in February 1915.

In 1914, the Haitian Government severed its connection with the Banque Nationale

and in doing so endangered the repayment of foreign debts. Foreign creditors

became alarmed because of the possibility of foreign intervention. In addition,

World War 1 started in 1914 and Germany would assist her in war on this side of

the Atlantic.

The United States took the initiative and intervened in Haiti because Germany

threatened to seize Haiti for the non-payment of debts to German lenders. In

addition, this would provide the opportunity for Germany to establish the supply

base that it had always longed for on this side of the Atlantic. The U.S. wanted to

protect the lives of American citizens who were living in Haiti, their property

there, the Panama Canal and the Windward Passage, whose safety could be

endangered if European countries took control of Haiti as well as the interest of

foreign creditors. The U.S. wanted to restore law and order in Haiti and make sure

that it was able to retain a larger degree of political control over the country.

Dominican Republic (1916)

During the 19th century, the United States’ relationship with the Dominican

Republic was confined primarily to trading, investment in the sugar industry and

providing loans for the government. Between 1882 and 1899, the Dominican

Republic experienced political stability and economic growth under the presidency

of Ulises Heureaux. However, he was assassinated in 1899 and this resulted in

turmoil.

In March 1903, another revolution broke out which caused several foreign nations

to send warships and land troops to protect the lives and property of their

nationals. In 1903, the government failed to keep its promise to German, Italian,
and Spanish creditors that it would make monthly payments on its debts. As a

result, the French and Belgian Governments threatened to seize the customs house

in Santo Domingo. This caused President Roosevelt to issue his Corollary to the

Monroe Doctrine in December 1904.

In January 1905, an agreement was signed between the United States and the

Dominican Republic. This gave the U.S. the authority to administer the customs

collection from which the debts would be serviced. This meant that European

nations would have no reason to intervene, as the debts owed to them would be

serviced by the U.S. The U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic was known as

Dollar Diplomacy and was credited to William Howard Taft.

In 1916, President Juan Isidro Jimenez was forced to accept more American

control in the Dominican Republic. He refused and resigned, leaving the country

without a government. The U.S. became afraid that another government would be

elected that might not be in favour with U.S. intervention. Consequently, further

elections did not take place and President Woodrow Wilson landed troops in the

Dominican Republic so as to prevent political instability and the intervention of

German and other foreign troops.

Reasons for U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic

Firstly, the U.S. wanted to forestall any possible European intervention. The First

World War was in progress and the Dominican Republic was indebted to European

nations including Germany. These countries could use the political instability within

the country as an excuse to intervene. Germany wanted a place in the Caribbean to

establish a base to help in its war efforts. The Germans could use the political
instability as an excuse to take over the country for the non- payment of debts. A

base could then be established and this could pose a serious threat to the safety

of the Panama Canal.

Secondly, the U.S. wanted to protect the canal, restore law and order in the

country and protect the lives and the property of its citizens in the country.

Grenada (1983)

In March 1979, the New Jewel Movement (NJM) led by Maurice Bishop seized

power when the Prime Minister was not in the country. He established a new

government called the People’s Revolutionary Government (PRG) which was

welcomed by the people especially when it launched a set of reforms to improve

health, education and housing. However, the new government began to establish

close ties with the Soviet Union, Cuba, and other communist countries. The PRG

delayed national elections, created a large military force and with Cuban help began

to build a new airport at Point Salines which could accommodate large military

aircrafts. The U.S. became afraid that Grenada might become communist and in so

doing became a threat to democratic institutions in the neighbouring states.

In October 1983, extremist members of the PRG led by Bernard Coard, Deputy

Prime Minister seized power and placed Maurice Bishop under house arrest.

Bernard Coard and his followers were dissatisfied at Bishop’s moderate policies

and so formed a Revolutionary Military Council led by General Hudson Austin. On

October 19th, 1983, they executed Bishop and other members of the PRG. The

heads of government of the Commonwealth Caribbean appealed to the U.S. for

military assistance to restore democracy in Grenada.

On 25th October, 1983, Operation Urgent Fury under the command of Admiral

Joseph Metcalf III under the presidency of Ronald Reagan launched a surprise

attack on Grenada. It was accompanied by troops from several British Caribbean

islands.

Reasons why the U.S. intervened in Grenada

1. The Caribbean Commonwealth leaders appealed to the U.S. for help.

2. The U.S. wanted to protect the lives of American citizens who were mostly

medical students at the American-run St. George’s University School of

Medicine on the island.

3. The United States wanted to strengthen its declining position as a world

power.

4. The U.S. wanted to restore political stability in the island.

5. The U.S. wanted to prevent the establishment of another communist regime

in the region, as this could undermine their regional and national interests.

Economic, Cultural and Political Effects of the United States’ Imperialism in

the English- speaking Caribbean up to 1985

Economic Effects

The United States involvement in the British Caribbean after 1939 had a direct

effect upon the economy of the region.

 The naval bases provided employment for thousands of people which helped

to boost the local economies due to the influx of United States’ dollars.

 The U.S. built military airports in Antigua and St. Lucia and later handed

them over to the governments of these islands. These have proved to be

 useful infrastructure which would greatly enhance the islands’ links with

international centres.

 United States’ investments in developing Trinidadian oil, Jamaican and

Guyanese bauxite created employment for local people and provided revenue

for the government.

 After 1945, the governments of several British Caribbean territories

including Jamaica, Trinidad, and Barbados began to offer incentives like ‘’tax

holidays’’, lower tariffs or customs duties on machinery and raw material to

attract foreign, mostly United States’ investments to the territories. By the

1960s, 800 registered manufacturing businesses were established in

Jamaica, with a similar pattern in other territories. These were mainly light

industries and even though they were not labour intensive, they provided

jobs in both manufacturing and non-manufacturing occupations such as

selling, distribution, repairs and maintenance. They also helped the countries’

balance of payment.

 Caribbean governments seized an important share of the international

tourist industry by offering hotel builders the same types of incentives as

manufacturers. The British Caribbean’s share of the American tourist

market grew after Castro’s revolution in Cuba. Tourism created a number of

jobs in construction, shops, handicrafts, service trade and direct

employment in the resorts. Tourists contributed significantly to the foreign

exchange earnings of many of the islands through expenditure on gifts,

food, and accommodation.

 The United States was the most important trading partner for the British

Caribbean territories by the 1970s. For example, by 1970, the U.S. was

taking 53% of Jamaica’s exports, and contributed 43% of her imports. In

 1977, Jamaica and Guyana combined, supplied 65% of the United States’

bauxite imports, while 60% of Trinidad’s petroleum went to the United

States. In 1974, all of the British Caribbean territories except Barbados,

imported between 77% and 92% of their grain products from the U.S.

 After the Cuban revolution, American financial aid, which was provided in an

attempt to achieve economic development, so as to prevent communism, gave

the British territories some worthwhile infrastructure such as roads,

airports, harbours, schools, and housing.

 The United States Immigration Act of 1965 granted independent Caribbean

nations non- quota status, which allowed West Indians from British ex-

colonies to move freely to the U.S. Over 200, 000 West Indians emigrated

to the U.S. from 1967-1976. Emigration released the population pressure on

the territories’ economies, and the remittances sent to relatives raised

standards of living and provided foreign exchange for economies.

 On the negative side, emigration results in a ‘’brain drain’’, thus depriving the

region of skills necessary for sustainable development. In addition, much of

the investments in tourism, bauxite, oil, light manufacturing industries came

from the U.S., and so a high percentage of the earnings were returned to

the shareholders instead of being reinvested in the territories.

Cultural Effects

Due to the interaction of trade, travel and other forms of contact, the U.S. had

been able to exercise a strong influence on the culture of the British Caribbean

throughout the 20th century. People who had extra money to spend travelled for

leisure, educational advancement and employment. As a result of travel, people

became directly exposed to the United States’ culture. They acquired a taste for

the popular foods, they liked the clothes, hairstyles, music, and even the slang.

Radio has been a prime medium for spreading American culture to the Caribbean

via its music such as country and western, jazz, rock and roll, jive, and gospel.

After World War II, musical instruments like the electric guitar, saxophone,

gramophone, and jukeboxes were introduced from North America. In addition, the

British Caribbean islands were bombarded with religious programmes from North

America which have helped to erode some of the traditional religious practices of

the region. Radios have also helped to popularize the recording industry and this

helped to spread North American music and dance.

Films played a significant role in spreading American culture to the British

Caribbean throughout the 20th century. Most of the entertainment available in

cinemas was imported from the U.S. and so Caribbean people were exposed to

movies depicting American social, political, religious, and moral values. The

prevalence of televisions during the 1970s, and the subsequent introduction of the

videocassette recorder (VCR), brought the movie house into the living rooms of the

region and enhanced the American cultural impact on the Caribbean people.

Magazines and other kinds of publications have also played a part in exposing

British Caribbean people to the U.S. culture. Since the 1960s, for example,

thousands of used American textbooks and novels were sent as gifts to Jamaica

for use in schools and libraries. Textbooks provided information on political and

religious issues and influenced the attitude of people on issues like communism.

News and opinions in magazines had a similar effect. Magazines also popularized

the latest fashion in clothes and hairstyles which were useful to seamstresses and
hairdressers, as well as drinks, food, architecture, and different forms of

entertainment.

Recreational activities of various forms such as games like dominoes, monopoly,

chess, checkers, draughts, and the use of dice and dolls infiltrated the Caribbean

region. Also, the popular game of basketball, rounders, softball, and boxing were

adopted from the U.S. The drinking of beer, sodas, fast foods like chicken and

chips, hotdogs, and hamburgers were all imported from North America.

Fashions of all kinds were also imported. During the early half of century, it was

customary for Caribbean men to wear hats particularly Panama hats which were an

American fashion adopted in the Caribbean. Similarly, denim jeans for both men

and women, sneakers, bobby socks, etc., were all imported from North America.

By the second half of the 20th century, the adaptation of American cultural imports

dominated the British Caribbean culture.

Political Effects

 Military occupation of Cuba, Haiti and the Dominican Republic resulted in

stable democracy for some time afterwards. However, democracy and stable

government did not last long. There is still unrest to this day.

 Policies were put in place to put the Caribbean a main priority of the

Americans. The following are some of these policies; The Monroe Doctrine,

The Roosevelt Corollary, The Good Neighbour Policy, and the Alliance for

Progress.
  The presence of the U.S. has helped promote the spread of democracy in

the Caribbean especially by opposing the laws set by rulers who took power

by illegal means. In other words, the U.S. Presence prevented the creation

of authoritarian and militaristic leaders and groups. In the Dominican

Republic for instance, all senior officials were removed and replaced by U.S.

military officers.

 By the 1980s, the U.S. opposition to communism and its demonstrated

willingness to use force kept the USSR from getting control of the

Caribbean.

The United States and Cuba (1901-1962)

In 1898, Cuba obtained its independence from Spain by the Treaty of Paris. After

the Spanish- American War, the island came under control of the United States

military who occupied the island up until 1901. That year the United States

government passed a law called the Platt Amendment which determined relations

between the United States and Cuba for more than three decades. Under the

provisions of the Platt Amendment, Cuba was forbidden to negotiate any treaty

with foreign powers or borrow money from any country if it could not repay the

debt. The U.S. also had the right to intervene in Cuba to preserve law and order

and uphold electoral government. The U.S. was also given the right to set up

military bases on Cuban soil and build a naval base at Guantanamo in Eastern Cuba.

The victory over Spain also gave the United States the islands of the Philippines,

Guam and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean. The United States took full control of Cuba

and restored order. Money was poured into Cuba which helped to repair damage of
the war and organizing new projects such as schools, roads, bridges, and hospitals.

Havana was transformed into a more modern city and the harbour was deepened.

They also provided food for the Cubans and took action to eradicate yellow fever.

Health and sanitation services in general were improved. In 1902, the United

States withdrew its military from Cuba and a new government was established.

Cuba was declared a republic and held its first presidential election and a pro-

American President by the name of Estrada Palma assumed the office of President.

Gradually, U.S. business interests dominated the Cuban economy. For the first part

of the 20th century, the island’s revenues continued to be based mainly on sugar.

Cuban tourism also developed in the 1920s and a tourism industry based on

gambling and prostitution flourished. When the U.S. government outlawed alcohol

between 1919 and 1933, through a policy called Prohibition, Havana became an even

more popular destination for Americans. This however contributed to the anti-

American sentiments among Cubans. Although money flowed into Cuba the

prosperity was one-sided. The island was turned into a giant plantation and the vast

majority of its citizens became servants to American big business. Sugar prices

increased tremendously during the early 20th century resulting in what became

known as the ‘’Dance of the Millions’’, but the greater part of the millions went to

top Cuban families. Only four out of 100 Cubans could afford to eat regularly and in

the rural areas 75% of the dwellings were huts made from palm trees, with only

50% having toilets, 15% having inside water and less than 10% having electricity.

One third of the work force was poor and depended on seasonal employment on the

sugar estates to earn money. In addition, most of the businesses were controlled

by foreigners who owned about three- quarters of the island’s arable land.
The U.S., Fulgencia Batista and Fidel Castro

Against the background of these events, nearly all of the Cuban administrations

were ran by corrupt leaders. One such leader was Fulgencia Batista who came to

power in 1933 and was responsible for one of the most ruthless dictatorships in

Cuba. Under his leadership, he forged an early alliance with the United States.

Under his leadership, his administration built schools and houses all over the island.

But while Cuba developed and showed signs of prosperity, rural Cuba was very

underdeveloped. Corruption also continued and in 1944 after losing the election,

Batista left Cuba and went to live in Florida.

In 1953, through a coup d’etat Batista regained power and set up a dictatorship

with the support of the United States Government. Many of the American dollars

that were pumped into Cuba by tourists, gamblers and investors never reached the

masses. The rural population continued to live in dire poverty while politicians lived

lavishly on their collected fortunes. Batista kept himself in power by subverting

the political process using the military to get support through threats and even by

assassinating his opponents. Order was kept by brutal repression, the press was

censored and anyone who dared oppose his regime was either executed, imprisoned

or exiled.

On January 1st, 1959, the Batista regime was overthrown in a coup led by a young

lawyer named Fidel Castro. This young lawyer was one of the many who willing to

see Cuba become politically free from United States domination. Immediately

after, Castro became the leader of Cuba he began implementing social reforms and

putting his radical schemes for agriculture into action. Land reform was carried out

via the National Institute of Agrarian Reform (INRA). Large plantations including

American holdings were divided and plots were distributed among the landless. The
Cuban revolutionaries believed that one of the reasons for the hardships they

experienced was because of the land being in the hands of the large estate owners

or latifundistas- the small group of rich corporations and individuals. Castro also

nationalized many service industries such as telephones, railways and oil refineries-

a large percentage of which were American owned.

In order to carry out his social reforms, Castro turned to the communist states of

the world, the USSR and her allies for assistance. All of them were state owned

and run by state planning organizations. The USSR granted Cuba a loan of $100

million to be used to buy goods from the USSR which helped Castro to launch his

industrialization plans. They were to include petroleum, iron, steel, aluminium

products, chemicals, and fertilizers. The money was also used to buy machinery for

factories which were set up by Soviet technicians.

Cuba’s plans for industrialization and her dealings with the USSR angered the U.S.

government which resulted in an economic war between the two countries. In 1961,

Congress cancelled the purchase of Cuban sugar at preferential rates which could

have ruined Cuba. However, the USSR came to Cuba’s aid by agreeing to purchase

nearly all the Cuban sugar crop. From then on, Cuba and the United States carried

on an economic war. American citizens were prohibited from travelling to Cuba

which stopped the island’s income. The United States also placed an embargo on all

trade with Cuba except in food drugs.

There were many Cubans who did not like what was going on and as a result left

Cuba for places like Central America and Florida. Many Cubans and American

citizens who would have lost their property were resentful of Castro and his

actions and thus gathered in Florida and plan to coup to overthrow the revolution.

With the support of President John F. Kennedy and the United States Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA), 1, 500 Cuban exiles invaded Cuba in 1961 in what became

known as the ‘’Bay of Pigs’’ invasion in an attempt to overthrow Castro and his

revolutionary forces. The Bay of Pigs invasion was however a failure. Castro’s

forces were warned of the planned attack and were therefore well prepared.

Three hundred of the invaders were killed while the other 1200 were taken as

prisoners.

The Bay of Pigs Invasion only served to strengthen Cuba’s ties with the USSR. By

the end of 1961, Castro declared himself a fully-fledged communist and Cuba

became the first communist nation in the Western hemisphere. In October 1962,

the world almost came to a nuclear war when the United States discovered through

satellite photographs that the Soviet Government was building missile launch sites

in Cuba. These nuclear missiles represented a threat to the United States for the

simple fact that they could have reached any chosen target in the United States

and thus doubled the number of U.S. cities and military bases which could be

destroyed by the USSR. When the United States found about the base, the two

countries stood for days on the brink of open war, but the Russian stepped down

when the Premier Khrushchev agreed to withdraw the missiles and close the base.

This later became known as the ‘’Cuban Missile Crisis’’ and helped prevent the Cold

War between the world’s two super-powers from becoming a nuclear conflict, with

a ‘’hotline’’ between the U.S. and the USSR leaders, as well as other measures being

installed after the incident.

Thus by 1962 Castro had abandoned his first policy of returning Cuba to a system

of democratic government. Two factors were responsible for Castro adopting the

Communist model. One was the attempts by the United States to destroy his

revolutionary movement, which forced him to turn to the USSR for aid and
protection. The other was the development of his plans for state- controlled

industrialization in which he had turn to the USSR for guidance on planning and for

help in starting up the industries.

In 1962, the United States forced the Organization of American States (OAS) to

expel Cuba from that body, and to have a policy of hemispheric exclusion towards

Cuba from then on.

THE UNITED STATES INFLUENCE IN THE CARIBBEAN

The United States were formerly thirteen colonies on the eastern coast of North

America. In 1783, they won their independence from Britain after a successful

rebellion. Their first president was George Washington. To the east of the

thirteen colonies lay the Atlantic, to the west lay Louisiana (French), to the south

lay Florida and New Orleans (Spanish) and to the far south lay the West Indian

islands owned by various European nations.

The United States entered the Caribbean in three stages:

 1745: The United States signed Pinckney’s Treaty with Spain and therefore

obtained permission to use the Mississippi and the port of New Orleans. This

made trade with the West Indies easier.

 1805: President Jefferson purchased Louisiana from France for $15 million.

This gave the U.S an outlet into the Gulf of Mexico and easy access to the

Caribbean.

 President Jackson forced Spain to give Florida to the U.S. in exchange for

the U.S. taking over the payment of $5 million compensation which Spain

owed to the U.S. merchants.

Some terms associated with the United States

American War of Independence 1775-1783

This was a war which broke out between the thirteen North American colonies and

Britain thus resulting in their independence in 1783. The Americans had protested

against the rights of the British Parliament to tax the colonies. Behind the

protests were the 18th century teachings on free trade, individual rights and

sovereignty of the state. In 1778 and 1779, France and Spain joined the war on the

side of the American colonies. In 1783, the U.S. became and independent nation

after the 13 American colonies defeated the British forces.

Manifest Destiny 1801

This was a theory put forward by Thomas Jefferson in 1801 and upheld by other

U.S. presidents. He put forward the idea that since the U.S. was superior both

racially and culturally to other people on the American continent, then it was

natural and inevitable that the U.S. would dominate the Americas. As a result, an

independent Cuba would gravitate towards the U.S.

Cuba was located across the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico and so was blocking the

U.S. access to the Caribbean. Therefore, Cuba was of strategic importance to the

U.S. as it commanded the important shipping lanes of the Yucatan Channel and

Florida Strait. Havana, the capital and main port, was the key port of the Spanish

Trade System. Since Britain was declining as a colonial power, Thomas Jefferson

thought that Cuba would gravitate towards the U.S.

Monroe Doctrine 1823

In 1823, President Monroe in his inaugural speech which became known as the

Monroe Doctrine and aimed at Cuba, warned European colonial powers that the U.S.

would consider any further colonization in the Americas, suppression of

independence or reclaiming of colonies which had won independence as unfriendly

acts towards the U.S.

Louisiana Purchase 1803

Although the U.S. remained neutral in the French Revolutionary wars, it concluded

Pinckney’s Treaty with Spain which opened New Orleans to U.S. shipping and access

to the Caribbean. Then the U.S. obtained coastline on the Gulf of Mexico west of

the Mississippi River through the Louisiana Purchase by which the U.S. paid France

$15 million for Louisiana.

Ten Years’ War 1868-78

This was a civil war which took place in Cuba. There were many internal disorders

and differences in opinion. Creole plantation owners hated the Spanish-born ruling

classes and wanted annexation by U.S. Nationalists including Afro-Cubans who

wanted independence from Spain. The Spaniards wanted to continue under colonial

rule.

During this war, the U.S. remained neutral and merely acted as a mediator to end

the war on the basis of Cuban independence and the abolition of slavery. This

failed and the war continued resulting in strained relations between the U.S. and

Spain since the U.S. was convinced that Spain was unable to control Cuba. This war

eventually came to an end in 1878 with the Treaty of Zanjon when Spain promised

to emancipate the slaves and grant internal self-government to Cuba. However,

emancipation did not come until eight years later in 1886 and self-government was

not introduced. The President of the United States at that time was President

Rutherford Hayes who adopted a policy of non-intervention in Cuban affairs.

Spanish-American War 1898

In February 1898, two incidents occurred which severed peaceful relations

between Spain and the U.S. and led to war. Firstly, there was the de Lome letter

written by Enrique Duppy de Lome to a friend in Havana in which he denounced the

President of the U.S. and implied that the offer of autonomy was a ruse. The

letter fell into the hands of Cuban insurgents and was published in American

newspapers.

Secondly, the explosion of the American ship, the USS Maine, in Havana Harbour

on February 14th, 1898 which resulted in the loss of 266 lives.

On April 20th, 1898, President William McKinley signed a joint resolution which

authorized him to use force to end the insurrection in Cuba. Two days later he

ordered a naval blockade of Cuba. The Spanish- American war had begun. It ended

in August 1898. In December 1898, the U.S. and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris

which reflected in the U.S. assuming sovereignty over the Spanish colonies. Cuba

was forced to accept an American Army of occupation while Puerto Rico and the

Philippines and Guam (in the Pacific) were annexed outright by the U.S.

Ostend Manifesto 1854

After the U.S. had reached the Gulf of Mexico, their nearest Caribbean neighbour

was Cuba. They tried therefore to obtain Cuba from Spain because it was

strategically located and was the key port to Spanish trade in the Caribbean.

European colonial powers France and Britain were alarmed at the determination of
the U.S. to acquire Cuba. President Franklin Pierce (1853-57) was very eager to

acquire Cuba and offered Spain $100 million but was rejected. The U.S. arranged a

meeting in Ostend in Belgium where they offered $120 million for the purchase of

Cuba. Pierce’s opponents issued the Ostend Manifesto which showed how strongly

France and Spain and Britain rejected the U.S. designs on Cuba.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty 1850

The annexation of California in 1848 and the discovery of gold there shortly

afterwards resulted in the need for an interoceanic canal to facilitate the

movement of people and goods between the eastern and western seaboards of the

U.S. The site selected for the canal brought the U.S. into direct conflict with

Britain who had been expanding its influence in the area.

However, neither the U.S. nor the British government wanted exclusive privileges

in the area. Thus, Britain showed its willingness to compromise by renouncing

exclusive claim to the mouth of the San Juan River. In 1850, Britain and the U.S.

reached a peaceful settlement on the issue by agreeing to the Clayton-Bulwer

Treaty which provided a neutralized canal under the exclusive control of neither

country and for the non-colonization of Central America. This involved American

Secretary of State, John M. Clayton, and British Minister, Henry Lytton Bulwer.

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty 1901

This was signed on November 18th, 1901 by Britain and the U.S. the right to build,

operate and defend a canal which would be ‘’free and open to the vessels of

commerce and war and of all nations’’ on the basis of equal treatment. The treaty

removed the British from their dominant position in the Caribbean while enhancing

that of the U.S.

Platt Amendment 1901

This was the compromise between annexation and complete Cuban independence. It

called for:

1. A commitment by Cuba not to sign any treaty which would impair Cuban

independence or to grant foreign special commissions without U.S.

permission.

2. A pledge to keep the Cuban debt at a low level.

3. An extension of authority to the U.S. to intervene to protect Cuban

independence and maintain stability.

4. Ratification of the acts of the military government.

5. Granting of sites for naval bases on the island.

The Platt Amendment was presented as an ultimatum to the Cuban people either to

accept it or face continued military occupation. It was adopted on the 12th June,

1901 by the Cuban Constitutional Convention by a vote of 16:11.

The adoption of the Platt Amendment paved the way for the withdrawal of the

U.S. military forces and the end of the occupation. On 24th February, 1902, with

the U.S. backing, Tomas Estrada Palma was declared the first President of the

Republic of Cuba.

Hay-Herrán Treaty 1903

The treaty laid down the conditions for the construction and operation of the

canal. It called for the payment of $10 million and an annual annuity of $25, 000, it

specified a zone of 10kms (6mls) and granted the U.S. rights in the canal zone for

100 years, renewable at the option of the U.S. These conditions were unacceptable

to the Colombian senate as they posed a threat to the independence of their

country. The U.S. Government was not to be thwarted and since Colombia refused

to comply, other tactics had to be employed.

Big Stick Policy of the U.S.

In the early years of the 20th century, American policy was described as ‘’Big Stick

Policy’’ because of the aggressive nature of its attitudes towards the developing

Caribbean republics. The construction of the Panama Canal during this period and

the determination of the American government to make the Caribbean an American

lake were largely responsible for this attitude. This policy was associated with

Theodore Roosevelt.

The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine 1904

The Roosevelt Corollary operated under three administrations. Theodore Roosevelt

(international policeman), William Taft (who pursued the Corollary under the guise

of Dollar Diplomacy) and Woodrow Wilson (idealist).

Theodore Roosevelt decided to intervene in order to bring about a general

settlement of the Dominican Republic’s debt issue. He expressed his policy in his

annual message to Congress on the 6th December, 1904. This statement was called

the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. It meant that the intervention of

the U.S. in the internal affairs of the Caribbean and Latin American States was

necessary to maintain stability in order to prevent interference from European

nations.

Dollar Diplomacy 1904-1930

This was associated with William H. Taft who succeeded Theodore Roosevelt in

1909. In order to promote government and economic prosperity to prevent

European interference in the Caribbean, the Taft administration resorted to a

combination of loans and customs receivership in the delinquent states, e.g.

Dominican Republic. Financial reform involved the refunding of old European held

bonded debts by loans floated in the U.S. or the participation of American bankers

in international financial operations. Dollar Diplomacy was applied in Central

American republics especially Guatemala and Honduras, also Dominican Republic.

The policy was best implemented in Haiti.

Organic Acts

This act was also known as the Foraker Act and was passed in Puerto Rico in 1900

by the U.S. Congress. This gave Puerto Rico a civilian government (which replaced

the military government) and a law-making body elected by Puerto Ricans. However,

the true power stayed with the U.S. though the Puerto Rican Senate made up of an

American government and five official members appointed by the Puerto Rican

Government. This Act also stated that Puerto Ricans were not American citizens

and could not travel freely to the U.S.

The Second Organic Act

This Act replaced the Foraker Act and was also known as the Jones Act passed by

the U.S Congress. This Act gave a greater measure of self-government to Puerto

Rico by separating the executive and legislative branches of government. It stated

that:

 Puerto Ricans were citizens of the United States.

 There would be two elected houses of Parliament.

 U.S. civil servants were limited (only three heads of department).

 U.S. President and Congress could veto (reject) laws passed in Puerto Rico.
  Puerto Ricans could not vote in U.S. congressional elections.

 Puerto Ricans did not have to pay taxes to the U.S.

As in Cuba, there were many improvements to the economic and social life of

Puerto Rico after U.S. intervention. In 1952, Puerto Rico was declared a

Commonwealth in the U.S.

The Dance of the Millions

This referred to the period: 1919-1920 when great profits were coming from the

Cuban sugar industry and there was a rush to buy Cuban sugar. Cuban property

continued to pass into the hands of the U.S. businessmen who bought up

plantations, factories, etc. Between 1919-1960, many hotels and thousands of

American tourists came to Cuba on vacation to gamble and to buy liquor. The

popularity of Cuba impeded the tourist industry of other West Indian islands.

The New Deal

The period: 1917-1931 witnessed a steady decline in the economy of the Virgin

Islands due to the inability of the naval administration to devise schemes for

economic rehabilitation. The economy had declined to such an extent that

President Herbert C. Hoover, referred to the territory as ‘’an effective poorhouse

comprising 90% of the population’’. Thus, the New Deal programme was extended to

the Virgin Islands in the 1930s. It was expressed primarily through the Virgin

Islands Company which undertook a programme of economic rehabilitation to

create employment. Abandoned sugar plantations were bought and peasant farming

was encouraged to produce food and cash crops. The company assisted farmers by

ploughing their lands, giving them seeds, transporting and milling their cane and
buying their produce. By 1914, the company was the sole manufacturer and rum

distiller in St. Croix.

Little New Deal

In 1932, Franklin Roosevelt was elected President of the U.S. He began the New

Deal programme to get people back to work which was extended to the USA’s

overseas protectorates. In Puerto Rico it became known as the ‘’Little New Deal’’.

It was Puerto Rico through the worse depression years but too much money was

spent purely on relief and too little on schemes that would provide long- term

employment.

Good Neighbour Policy 1933

Before World War 1 (1914-1918), the U.S. had adopted and pursued a policy of

active intervention in the affairs of Caribbean states because of their unsettled

political condition. The object was to promote peace and orderly government in

order to prevent the establishment of new productive enterprises by American

capital and prevent foreign intervention considered detrimental to American

investment and national security. Consequently, due to its policies of interference,

the U.S. government became increasingly unpopular in the other countries of the

Americas and Caribbean. The U.S. tried to counter this unpopularity by acting with

great restraint, demonstrating the evolution of a new attitude towards the region.

This changing attitude was transformed into policy during the administration of

Franklin Roosevelt. In his inaugural address in 1913, he pledged the U.S. to pursue a

policy of a ‘’good neighbour’’. That pledge became known as the ‘’Good Neighbour

Policy’’. By new treaties, the U.S. government pledge began to withdraw its claims

to rights of interference in the government of other countries.

Cold War

After the Second World War (1939-1945), the policy of the U.S. in the Caribbean

underwent a significant change. This restraint which characterized the era of the

Good Neighbour Policy was discarded. Thus, during the years after the war

persistent hostility or cold war between the two major powers (Russia and USA)

spread to Asia, Africa and Latin America.

The Soviet Union adopted the communist ideology after the resolution of 1917 and

by 1945 had been recognized as the most outstanding member of the anti-

communist country. The USA with its so-called ‘’democratic system of government’’

and as the most outstanding member of the anti- communist group, assumed the

task of protecting the western hemisphere from the threat of communism.

Operation Bootstrap

In 1940, the Popular Democratic Party led by Munoz Marin won the election in

Puerto Rico. President F. Roosevelt sent a new governor: Rexford Guy Tugwell who

was sympathetic to Munoz Marin to Puerto Rico. Together the two men set about

remaking Puerto Rico. They adopted a massive industrial programme which was

later nicknamed: ‘’Operation Bootstrap’’, a title which made it clear that Puerto

Ricans would pull their country together by their own efforts. The government

established industries and then sold them to private individuals and gave tax

exemptions to new industries for ten years in order to encourage industrial

development.

Bay of Pigs 1961

In 1959, Fidel Castro staged a revolution in Cuba and took over from the dictator:

Batista. He felt that the U.S. owned too much property in Cuba and began a
programme of nationalization. He took over land, mines, factories, businesses, etc.,

into which U.S. businessmen had invested. Thus, diplomatic relations between the

USA and Cuba were broken off when President Eisenhower gave way to demands

that all the staff in the American Embassy in Havana should be withdrawn.

Both Eisenhower and the succeeding President John F. Kennedy, were under

pressure to take action to destroy the new revolutionary Cuban Government before

it became a communist armed base. However, Kennedy did not agree to outright

military invasion in Cuba for fear it might lead to a nuclear war with the USSR.

Both Eisenhower and Kennedy continued to plot secretly, and Cubans who had fled

from Castro’s rule were recruited, armed and trained by the CIA (Central

Intelligence Agency). On the 17th April, 1991, over 2000 men were made ready to

land at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba.

The invasion failed due to lack of proper support from the majority of Cubans, the

fact that it was poorly planned and has no American back-up force because the

U.S. Government did not want to reveal its part in the invasion. Also, Castro had

learnt of the exact time, date and place of Castro’ s best troops, guns and tanks.

The Bay of Pigs fiasco was a blow to the prestige of the U.S. Government at home

and abroad.

The Missile Crisis 1962

On 29th August, 1962, high-altitude flights over Cuba by American spy planes

showed what might be surface-to-air nuclear missiles being installed in the western

provinces by Soviet technicians. This was denied by Khrushchev, but October 14th

photographs delivered to the White House proved that Khrushchev had lied.
President Kennedy informed the OAS (Organization of American States) of the

danger from missiles to both the USA and the Latin republics. He demanded and

got OAS support the stop and search all Soviet ships heading to Cuba. He then

contacted Khrushchev and demanded the removal of the missiles. Without waiting

for a reply, he ordered 145, 000 American troops to stand by in Florida and

Nicaragua. Khrushchev backed down and on 29th October, he ordered ships heading

to Cuba to turn back and to start dismantling missiles on the island.