Module 1: Introduction to Prompt

Engineering
1. What is a Prompt?
A prompt is a set of instructions or a specific input given to a machine learning model (like
ChatGPT) to generate a desired output.

2. What is a Response?
A response is the output generated by the AI system when a prompt is provided. The
response is the result of the model processing the input.

3. Introduction to ChatGPT
ChatGPT is an AI model developed by OpenAI, based on the GPT architecture. It is designed
to understand and generate human-like text based on the input provided.

4. Other AI Tools Similar to ChatGPT

There are several AI tools similar to ChatGPT such as Google Bard, Bing Chat, and Claude,
each with its own features and capabilities.

5. What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the simulation of human intelligence by machines. AI systems
perform tasks such as problem-solving, decision-making, and learning.

6. Introduction to Machine Learning (ML)

Machine Learning (ML) is a subset of AI that enables systems to learn from data and
improve their performance over time without explicit programming.

7. Types of Machine Learning

Supervised Learning: Model learns from labeled data.
Unsupervised Learning: Model identifies hidden patterns in unlabeled data.
Reinforcement Learning: Model learns through trial and error with feedback.
8. Introduction to Neural Networks
Neural Networks are a class of machine learning models inspired by the structure of the
human brain, consisting of layers of interconnected nodes.

9. Introduction to Deep Learning

Deep Learning is a subset of machine learning using neural networks with many layers
(deep neural networks) to handle complex tasks like image classification.

10. Types of Deep Learning Models

Discriminative Models: These models classify data.
Generative Models: These models generate new data based on learned patterns.

11. Introduction to Natural Language Processing (NLP)

Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a field of AI focused on the interaction between
computers and human languages.

12. NLP with Machine Learning

NLP powered by machine learning handles tasks such as language translation and
sentiment analysis.

13. NLP with Deep Learning

Deep learning models, like transformers, enable better understanding of human language in
NLP tasks.

14. Introduction to Large Language Models (LLMs)

Large Language Models (LLMs) are deep learning models trained on vast text data, capable
of generating human-like language.

15. Difference Between NLP and LLM

NLP is a broader field focused on processing human language, while LLMs are a type of deep
learning model specifically designed to handle large-scale language tasks.

16. Introduction to Generative AI

Generative AI creates new data based on learned patterns, such as text, images, or music.
17. Generative AI Use Cases
Text Generation, Image Generation, Music Composition, Video Generation.

18. Major Tasks in Prompt Engineering

Prompt to Text Content, Image Generation, Audio Generation, Video Generation, Task
Execution.

19. What Does a Prompt Engineer Have to Do?

A prompt engineer designs, tests, and refines prompts to maximize the effectiveness of AI
systems.

20. Prompt Engineering Challenges

Challenges include prompt ambiguity, response biases, complexity of prompts, and context
management.

Summary of the Module

This module provided an introduction to prompt engineering, exploring concepts of AI, ML,
deep learning, NLP, LLMs, and their applications.

Module 3: Data Structures and

Algorithms
Core Data Structures

1. Lists
Lists are mutable sequences in Python, meaning they can be modified after creation. Lists
can hold elements of any data type, and they maintain the order of insertion.

Common operations with lists include:

 • Creating, accessing, modifying, and iterating over lists

• List comprehensions: A concise way to create lists by applying an expression to each item
in a sequence.
2. Tuples
Tuples are immutable sequences in Python, meaning once they are created, their contents
cannot be modified. Tuples are often used for fixed collections of items.

• Creating and using tuples: Tuples can store multiple items, and they are defined using
parentheses.

• Unpacking tuples: Python allows you to extract the values from a tuple into separate
variables.

3. Sets
Sets are unordered collections of unique elements. They are used to store multiple items but
only one occurrence of each item.

• Creating and using sets: Sets can be created using curly braces or the set() constructor.

• Set operations: Sets support various operations, including union, intersection, and
difference.

4. Dictionaries
Dictionaries are collections of key-value pairs, where each key is mapped to a value. They
allow for fast lookup, insertion, and deletion.

• Creating and using dictionaries: Keys must be unique, and dictionaries are created using
curly braces or the dict() constructor.

• Dictionary methods and comprehensions: Python provides several methods for working
with dictionaries, and comprehensions allow for concise creation of dictionaries.

Advanced Data Structures

1. Collections Module
The collections module in Python provides additional data structures that enhance the
built-in types.

• defaultdict: A dictionary subclass that provides default values for non-existent keys.

• Counter: A dictionary subclass that is used to count the occurrences of elements in a

collection.

• OrderedDict: A dictionary subclass that remembers the order in which items were added.

• deque: A list-like container optimized for fast appends and pops from both ends.
Module 4: File Handling and Data
Processing
File Operations

1. Reading and Writing Files

File handling in Python is essential for working with files stored on the disk. Python
provides several functions to create, read, write, and close files.

Key operations include:

• Opening files: The open() function is used to open files in different modes (read, write,
append, etc.).

• Reading from files: You can read the contents of a file using various methods such as
read(), readline(), and readlines().

• Writing to files: Data can be written to a file using write() or writelines().

• Closing files: After completing operations, it is important to close the file using the close()
function to free up resources.

Python supports various file modes for opening files, such as:

• r: Read mode (default), used for reading files.

• w: Write mode, which overwrites the file if it exists or creates a new file.

• a: Append mode, which adds data to the end of the file if it exists.

• rb: Read binary mode, used for reading binary files.

• wb: Write binary mode, used for writing binary files.

2. Working with CSV and JSON

CSV and JSON are common file formats used for storing and exchanging data. Python
provides modules to handle these formats efficiently.

• CSV (Comma-Separated Values): The csv module in Python provides functionality to read
from and write to CSV files. CSV files store tabular data in plain text, with each line
representing a row and columns separated by commas.
• JSON (JavaScript Object Notation): The json module in Python is used to work with JSON
data, which is a lightweight format for storing and exchanging data. JSON files are text files
that contain structured data, typically used for APIs and configuration files.

Module 5: Object-Oriented
Programming (OOP)
OOP Basics

1. Classes and Objects

Classes and objects are the foundation of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP). A class
serves as a blueprint for creating objects, which are instances of the class. Classes define the
properties and behaviors (attributes and methods) that the objects will have.

Key points include:

• Defining classes: A class is defined using the class keyword followed by the class name.

• Creating objects: Objects are created by instantiating a class, and each object can have
unique values for instance variables.

• Instance variables and methods: Instance variables hold data specific to an object, while
methods define the behavior associated with the class.

2. Class Variables and Methods

Class variables are variables that are shared among all instances of a class. They are defined
within the class but outside of any instance methods. Class methods, defined using the
@classmethod decorator, operate on class-level data and can be called using the class name
itself.

• Using class variables: These variables are accessible by all instances of the class and can be
modified at the class level.

• Using class methods: Class methods take the class itself as their first argument, which is
typically named cls.

3. Inheritance
Inheritance allows one class (the child class) to inherit the attributes and methods of
another class (the parent class). It promotes code reusability and helps in maintaining a
cleaner class hierarchy.
• Single inheritance: Involves inheriting from one parent class.

• Multiple inheritance: Involves inheriting from more than one parent class, allowing a class
to combine functionalities from multiple sources.

4. Polymorphism and Encapsulation

Polymorphism allows objects of different classes to be treated as objects of a common super
class. It is typically achieved through method overriding.

• Method overriding: Involves redefining a method in the child class that was defined in the
parent class, allowing for custom behavior in the child class.

Encapsulation refers to restricting access to certain details of an object and only exposing
essential features.

• Private variables: In Python, private variables are indicated by a single or double

underscore prefix.

• Name mangling: Python uses name mangling to internally change the names of private
variables, making them harder to access from outside the class.

Module 6: Modules and Packages

Modular Programming

1. Creating and Importing Modules

Modular programming involves breaking a large program into smaller, manageable, and
reusable pieces called modules. Modules help in organizing code, improving maintainability,
and promoting code reuse.

Key points include:

• Defining modules: A module is simply a Python file that contains functions, classes, and
variables. It can be created by saving Python code in a .py file.

• Using modules: Modules can be imported into other Python scripts using the import
statement. Once imported, the functions and variables defined in the module can be
accessed.

2. Packages
A package is a collection of modules organized into directories. Packages allow for a more
hierarchical structuring of the code, especially in large projects.
• Organizing code into packages: Packages are directories that contain a special __init__.py
file, which can be empty or used to initialize the package. Sub-packages can also be created
by nesting directories inside packages.

• Importing from packages: Specific modules or functions from a package can be imported
using the from...import syntax.

Module 7: Exception Handling and

Debugging
Error Handling

1. Exception Types
Exceptions are runtime errors that can occur during the execution of a program. Python
provides several built-in exceptions to handle different error scenarios.

• Common exceptions include ValueError (raised when a function receives an argument of

the correct type but inappropriate value), TypeError (raised when an operation or function
is applied to an object of inappropriate type), and more.

2. Try, Except Blocks

The try and except blocks are used to handle exceptions. Code that might raise an exception
is placed inside a try block, and code to handle the exception is written in the except block.

• Else: The else block runs if no exceptions are raised in the try block.

• Finally: The finally block runs whether an exception occurs or not, typically used to clean
up resources like closing files.

3. Custom Exceptions
In Python, you can create your own exceptions by subclassing the built-in Exception class.
Custom exceptions are useful when you need to handle errors that are specific to your
application logic.

• Raising custom exceptions: You can raise your custom exception using the raise keyword.
Debugging

1. Debugging Techniques
Debugging is the process of identifying and fixing errors in the code. Python provides
several tools and techniques to aid in debugging.

• Using print statements and logging: Inserting print statements at critical points in the code
is a simple way to track the program's execution. For more advanced logging, the logging
module is used to record various levels of messages (info, warning, error, etc.).

• Using debuggers (pdb): Python’s built-in debugger, pdb, allows step-by-step execution,
inspecting variables, and setting breakpoints to analyze code behavior.

Module 8: Advanced Python Concepts

Decorators and Context Managers

1. Decorators
Decorators are a powerful tool in Python that allow you to modify the behavior of functions
or classes. They are often used for cross-cutting concerns like logging, timing, or access
control.

• Function decorators: A function decorator is applied to a function to modify its behavior

without changing its code. Decorators are defined using the @ symbol above the function
definition.

• Class decorators: Class decorators are similar to function decorators but are used to
modify the behavior of classes.

2. Context Managers
Context managers are used to manage resources in Python, such as opening and closing files
or managing database connections. They ensure that resources are properly acquired and
released.

• Using with statement: The with statement simplifies the management of resources by
ensuring that the resource is automatically cleaned up when the block of code is exited.

• Creating custom context managers: You can create custom context managers by defining
the __enter__ and __exit__ methods in a class. The __enter__ method is executed when the
block is entered, and __exit__ is executed when the block is exited, regardless of whether an
exception occurred.
Module 9: Iterators and Generators
1. Iterators
An iterator in Python is an object that contains a countable number of values and can be
iterated over, meaning that you can traverse through all the values. It implements the
iterator protocol, which consists of two methods: __iter__() and __next__().

Creating Iterators using __iter__ and __next__

- __iter__(self): This method is called when an iterator object is initialized. It should return
the iterator object itself.
- __next__(self): This method returns the next value from the iterator. If there are no more
items to return, it raises the StopIteration exception.
Example: Custom iterator class
class MyIterator:
def __iter__(self):
self.value = 0
return self
def __next__(self):
if self.value < 5:
self.value += 1
return self.value
else:
raise StopIteration

2. Generators
Generators are a simpler way to create iterators. They allow you to declare a function that
behaves like an iterator, i.e., it can be used in a for loop.

Creating Generators with yield

The yield statement is used in Python to replace return in a generator function. A generator
function is defined like a normal function, but instead of returning a value, it yields an
expression back to the caller. Each time the generator’s __next__() method is called, the
function resumes execution from where it left off.
Example:
def simple_generator():
yield 1
yield 2
 yield 3

Generator Expressions

Generator expressions provide an even shorter syntax to define generators. They are
similar to list comprehensions, but instead of creating a list, they return a generator object.
Example:
gen = (x * x for x in range(5))
for val in gen:
print(val)

Advantages of Generators:
1. Memory Efficient: Generators are memory efficient as they only generate values one at a
time, which is beneficial when working with large datasets.
2. Represent Infinite Sequences: Unlike lists, generators can represent infinite sequences as
they don’t store all values in memory.
3. Better Performance: Generators often perform better than lists when dealing with large
volumes of data because they compute values on the fly.

Module 10: Working with Libraries

(Scientific Computing)
1. NumPy
NumPy is a fundamental package for scientific computing in Python. It supports large,
multi-dimensional arrays and matrices, along with a collection of mathematical functions to
operate on these arrays.

Arrays and Matrix Operations

- NumPy Arrays: Arrays in NumPy are grid-like data structures that can hold elements of the
same type. Arrays can be one-dimensional (1D), two-dimensional (2D), or multi-
dimensional (ND).
Example:
import numpy as np
arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])

- Matrix Operations: NumPy allows easy matrix operations, including addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and dot product of matrices.
Example:
A = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
B = np.array([[5, 6], [7, 8]])
matrix_sum = A + B
matrix_product = np.dot(A, B)

- Broadcasting: NumPy also supports broadcasting, where smaller arrays are 'broadcast'
across the larger array to perform arithmetic operations.

Advantages of NumPy:
1. Efficient storage and computation of large data arrays.
2. Performs element-wise operations and broadcasting, which are faster and memory
efficient.

2. Pandas
Pandas is a powerful library for data manipulation and analysis. It provides data structures
like Series (1D) and DataFrames (2D) to work with structured data.

DataFrames for Data Manipulation

- DataFrame: A 2D labeled data structure, similar to an Excel spreadsheet or SQL table. It

supports multiple data types and allows powerful data manipulation and analysis
techniques.
Example:
import pandas as pd
data = {'Name': ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Charlie'], 'Age': [25, 30, 35]}
df = pd.DataFrame(data)

- Data Manipulation: Pandas allows filtering, sorting, and aggregating data. You can easily
manipulate DataFrames using indexing, slicing, and various built-in functions.
Example:
filtered_df = df[df['Age'] > 25]

- Handling Missing Data: Pandas provides tools to handle missing data by filling or dropping
null values.

Reading and Writing Data (CSV, Excel)

- Reading Data: Pandas provides easy functions to read data from CSV, Excel, and other file
formats.
 Example:
df_csv = pd.read_csv('data.csv')
df_excel = pd.read_excel('data.xlsx')

- Writing Data: Similarly, Pandas allows writing DataFrames back to CSV, Excel, or other
formats.
Example:
df.to_csv('output.csv')
df.to_excel('output.xlsx')

Advantages of Pandas:
1. Easy handling and manipulation of structured data.
2. Integration with many file formats like CSV, Excel, JSON, and SQL databases.
3. Built-in handling of missing data.

Module 11: Data Visualization

1. Matplotlib
Matplotlib is a comprehensive library for creating static, animated, and interactive
visualizations in Python. It is widely used for plotting graphs and charts.

Plotting Graphs and Charts

- Basic Plotting: Matplotlib’s pyplot module provides a MATLAB-like interface for creating
plots. It supports various types of plots like line plots, scatter plots, bar charts, histograms,
and more.
Example:
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
x = [1, 2, 3, 4]
y = [10, 20, 25, 30]
plt.plot(x, y)
plt.show()

- Customization: Matplotlib allows customization of plot properties such as axis labels, title,
legends, colors, and line styles.
Example:
plt.title('Sample Plot')
plt.xlabel('X-axis')
plt.ylabel('Y-axis')
- Subplots: Matplotlib also allows creating multiple plots (subplots) in a single figure.
Example:
plt.subplot(1, 2, 1)
plt.plot(x, y)
plt.subplot(1, 2, 2)
plt.bar(x, y)

Advantages of Matplotlib:
1. Flexible and powerful for a wide variety of plots.
2. Highly customizable, allowing control over all aspects of plot appearance.
3. Large community and extensive documentation.

2. Seaborn
Seaborn is a Python data visualization library based on Matplotlib. It provides a high-level
interface for drawing attractive and informative statistical graphics.

Statistical Data Visualization

- Seaborn is designed to work well with Pandas DataFrames, making it easy to visualize
statistical data. It supports a range of plots like distribution plots, categorical plots, and
regression plots.
Example:
import seaborn as sns
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
tips = sns.load_dataset('tips')
sns.scatterplot(x='total_bill', y='tip', data=tips)
plt.show()

- Heatmaps: Seaborn also supports heatmaps for visualizing matrix data.

Example:
sns.heatmap(data=tips.corr(), annot=True)

- Styling: Seaborn comes with built-in themes and color palettes for improving the
aesthetics of plots.
Example:
sns.set_theme(style="whitegrid")

Advantages of Seaborn:
1. Built-in support for statistical data visualization.
2. Easy integration with Pandas DataFrames.
3. Simplifies complex visualizations and improves the appearance of plots by default.

Module 12: Testing Unit Testing

1. Unittest Framework
The unittest framework is a built-in Python module for writing and running tests. It is based
on the xUnit architecture and supports various test methods and organizational features.

Writing and Running Tests

- Writing Tests: Test cases in unittest are written by subclassing unittest.TestCase. Methods
that start with the name 'test' are considered test methods.

Example:

import unittest

class TestMath(unittest.TestCase):

def test_addition(self):

self.assertEqual(1 + 1, 2)

if __name__ == '__main__':

unittest.main()

- Running Tests: Tests can be run using the command-line interface or by calling
unittest.main() in the script.

Advantages of Unittest:

1. Built into Python, no need to install external libraries.

2. Provides a framework for organizing and running tests.

Test Fixtures and Test Suites

- Test Fixtures: Fixtures are setup and cleanup routines that run before and after tests.
Common methods are setUp() and tearDown(), used to prepare the environment before
tests and clean up after tests.

Example:

def setUp(self):

self.test_data = [1, 2, 3]

def tearDown(self):

del self.test_data

- Test Suites: A test suite is a collection of test cases, test suites, or both. It allows you to
group tests to be run together.

Example:

suite = unittest.TestSuite()

suite.addTest(TestMath('test_addition'))

2. Pytest
Pytest is a popular third-party testing framework that makes writing and running tests
easier. It supports fixtures, parameterized testing, and advanced features.

Advanced Testing with Pytest

- Writing Tests: Pytest uses a simple function-based approach for writing tests. You do not
need to subclass any class or follow any strict naming convention.

Example:

def test_addition():

assert 1 + 1 == 2
- Fixtures in Pytest: Fixtures in Pytest are used to manage setup and teardown. They are
defined using the @pytest.fixture decorator.

Example:

import pytest

@pytest.fixture

def sample_data():

return [1, 2, 3]

- Parameterized Testing: Pytest supports parameterized tests using the

@pytest.mark.parametrize decorator, which allows running the same test with different
inputs.

Example:

@pytest.mark.parametrize('a, b, result', [(1, 2, 3), (2, 2, 4)])

def test_addition(a, b, result):

assert a + b == result

Advantages of Pytest:

1. Simpler syntax and more flexible than unit test.

2. Supports parameterized testing, useful for running the same test with multiple data sets.

3. Wide support for plugins to extend its functionality.