VELAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, CHENNAI – 66

(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

UNIT II ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

 Environmental pollution may be defined as, “the unfavorable alteration

of our surroundings”.
 It changes the quality of air, water and land which interferes with the
health of humans and other life on earth.
 Pollution are of different kinds depending on the nature of pollutant
generated from different sources.

Types of Pollutants

1. Biodegradable pollutants:
 Biodegradable pollutants decompose rapidly by natural processes.

2. Non-degradable pollutants:
 Non-degradable pollutants do not decompose (or) decompose slowly
in the environment.
 The slowly decomposed materials are more dangerous because it is
more difficult to remove them.
Classification of Pollution
The different kinds of pollution that affects the environment are,
 Air Pollution
 Water Pollution
 Soil Pollution
AIR POLLUTION
Definition
Air pollution may be defined as, “the presence of one (or) more
contaminants like dust, smoke, mist and odour in the atmosphere which are
injurious to human beings, plants and animals.”

The rapid industrialization, fast urbanization, rapid growth in population,

drastic increase in vehicles on the roads and other activities of human beings
have disturbed the balance of natural atmosphere.
Composition of Atmospheric Air
 During several billion years of chemical and biological evolution, the
composition of the earth’s atmosphere has varied.
 Today, about 99% of the volume of air we inhale consists of two gases:
Nitrogen and Oxygen.
Table 2.1 Composition of atmospheric air
Constituents %
Nitrogen 78
Oxygen 21
Argon (Ar) <1
CO2 0.037
Water vapour Remaining

O 2 , He, NH2 Trace amount

Sources of Air Pollution

The sources of air pollution are of two types
 1. Natural sources:
Examples: Volcanic eruptions, forest fires, biological decay, pollen grains,
marshes, radioactive materials etc.
2. Man-made (anthropogenic) activities
Examples: Thermal power plants, vehicular emissions, fossil fuel burning,
agricultural activities etc.,
Classification of Air Pollutants
Depending upon the form (origin) of pollutants present in the
environment, they are classified as
 Primary air pollutants.
 Secondary air pollutants.
1. Primary air pollutants
Primary air pollutants are those emitted directly in the atmosphere in
harmful form.
Example CO, NO, SO2 etc.,
Indoor Air Pollutants
 Indoor air pollutants are primary air pollutants.
 The most important indoor air pollutant is radon gas.
Sources (causes) of indoor air pollutants
 Radon gas is emitted from the building materials like bricks, concrete,
tiles, etc., which are derived from soil containing radium.
 It is also present in natural gas and ground water and is emitted indoors
while using them.
 Burning of fuels in the kitchen, cigarette smoke, liberates the pollutants
like CO, SO 2 , formaldehyde, BAP 2(benzo-(a) pyrene).
2. Secondary air pollutants
Some of the primary air pollutants may react with one another (or) with
the basic components of air to form new pollutants. They are called as
secondary air pollutants.
Common air pollutants sources (causes) and their effects
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than 1.1
billion people live in urban areas where outdoor air is unhealthy to breathe.
Some of the common air pollutants are described below.
Description
 It is a colourless, odourless gas that is poisonous to air-breathing
animals.
 It is formed during the incomplete combustion of carbon containing
fuels.
2C + O 2 −−−−−> 2CO
Human Sources (causes)
 Cigarette smoking, incomplete burning of fossil fuels.
 About 77% comes from motor vehicle exhaust.
Health Effects
1. Reacts with haemoglobin in red blood cells and reduces the ability of
blood to bring oxygen to body cells and tissues, which causes headaches
and anemia.
2. At high levels it causes coma, irreversible brain cell damage and death.
Environmental Effects
➢It increases the globe temperature.
2.Nitrogen dioxide ( NO ) 2
Description
 It is a reddish-brown irritating gas that gives photochemical smog.
 In the atmosphere it can be converted into nitric acid ( HNO3).
NO2 + Moisture −−−−−>HNO3
Human Sources (causes)
❑ Fossil fuel burning in motor vehicles (49%) and power industrial plants
(49%).
Health Effects
➢Lung irritation and damage.
Environmental Effects
Acid deposition of HNO3 can damage trees, soils and aquatic life in
lakes, HNO3 can corrode metals and eat away stone on buildings,
statues and monuments. NO2 can damage fabrics
3. Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Description
 It is a colourless and irritating gas.
 It is formed mostly from the combustion of sulphur containing
fossil fuels such as coal and oil.
 In the atmosphere it can be converted to sulphuric acid (H 2SO4)
which is a major component of acid deposition.
Human Sources (causes)
 Coal burning in power plants (88%) and industrial processes
(10%).
Health Effects
  Breathing problems for healthy people.
Environmental Effects
Reduce visibility, acid deposition of H2SO4 can damage trees, soils and aquatic
life in lakes.
4. Suspended Particulate matter (SPM)
Description
 It includes variety of particles and droplets (aerosols).
 They can be suspended in atmosphere for short periods to long
periods.
Human Sources (causes)
Burning coal in power and industrial plants (40%), burning diesel and other
fuels in vehicles (17%), agriculture, unpaved roads, construction etc.,
Health Effects
Nose and throat irritation, lung damage, bronchitis, asthma, reproductive
problems and cancer.
Environmental Effects
➢Reduces visibility, acid deposition and H2SO4 droplets can damage trees,
soils and aquatic life in lakes.
5. Ozone (O3)
Description
 Highly reactive irritating gas with an unpleasant odour that
forms in the troposphere.
 It is a major component of photochemical smog.
Human Sources (causes)
 Chemical reaction with volatile organic compounds (emitted mostly by cars
and industries) and nitrogen oxides.
Environmental Effect - Moderates the climate.
6. Photochemical smog
Description
❖The brownish smoke like appearance that frequently forms on clear, sunny
days over large cities with significant amounts of automobile traffic.
Sources (causes)
❖ It is mainly due to chemical reactions among nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbon by sunlight.
Health Effects
❖ Breathing problems, cough, eye, nose and throat irritation, heart diseases,
reduces resistance to colds and pneumonia.
Environmental Effects
❖ Ozone can damage plants and trees. Smog can reduce visibility.
7. Lead (pb)
Description
➢Solid toxic metal and its compounds, emitted into the atmosphere as
particulate matter.
Human Sources (causes)
➢Paint, smelters (metal refineries), lead manufacture, storage batteries,
leaded petrol.
Health Effects
 Accumulates in the body, brain and other nervous system damage and
mental retardation (especially in children); digestive and other health
problems, somelead-containing chemicals cause cancer in test animals.
Environmental Effect
❖ Can harm wild life.
8. Hydrocarbons (aromatic and aliphatic)
Description
❑ Hydrocarbons especially lower hydrocarbons get accumulated due to the
decay of vegetable matter.
Human sources (causes)
Agriculture, decay of plants, burning of wet logs.
Health Effects
❑ Carcinogenic.
Environmental effect
 It produces an oily film on the surface and do not as such causes a serious
problem until they react to form secondary pollutants.
 Ethylene causes plant damage even at low concentrations.
9. Chromium (Cr)
Description
It is a solid toxic metal, emitted into the atmosphere as particulate
matter.
Human Sources (causes)
Paint, smelters, chromium manufacture, chromium plating.
Health effects
Perforation of nasal septum, chrome holes, gastro intestinal ulcer, central
nervous system disease and cancer.
2.2.4 Control (or) Preventive Measures of air pollution
1.Source control
Some actions that can be taken in this regard are as follows:
 Use only unleaded petrol.
 Use petroleum products and other fuels that have low sulphur and
ash content.
 Reduce the number of private vehicles.
 Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and places where children
play are not located on busy streets.
 Plant trees along busy streets because they remove particulates and
carbon monoxide, and absorb noise.
 Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outside the
city centre preferably downwind of the city.
 Use catalytic converters to help control the emissions of carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons.
II Control measures in industrial centre
 The emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and
every industry.
 Incorporation of air pollution control equipments in the design of the plant
layout must be made mandatory.
 Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for the pollutants should be
carried out to know the emission levels.
 Equipments used to control air pollution

WATER POLLUTION
Definition:Water pollution may be defined as, “the alteration in physical,
chemical and biological characteristics of water which may cause harmful effects on
humans and aquatic life.”

SOURCES AND EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION:

1.Infectious agents:

Example: Bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms.

Sources: Human and animal wastes.
Effects: Variety of diseases.

2.Oxygen demanding wastes:

Example: Animal manure and plant debris that can be decomposed by aerobic
bacteria.
Sources: Sewage, paper mills, and food processing facilities
Effects: Wastes can degrade quality by depleting water of dissolved oxygen.
3 .In organic Chemicals:
Example: Water soluble inorganic chemicals. Compounds of toxic metals such as lead,
arsenic and selenium. Salts such as Nacl in water.
Sources: Surface runoff, industrial effluents, household cleansers
Effects: Skin cancers & neck damage ,Damage nervous system, liver & kidneys ,Lower
crop yields, Harm fish & other aquatic life and accelerate corrosion of metals.

4. Organic Chemicals:
Examples: Oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergents
Sources: Industrial effluents, household cleansers, runoff from farms
Effects: Causes nervous system damage, cancer, harm fish & wild life.

5. Plant nutrients

Examples: Water soluble compounds containing nitrate,phosphate and ammonium

ions
Sources: Sewage ,manure and runoff of agricultural and urban fertilizers.
Effects: 1.Causes excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants which die,decay

and deplete dissolved oxygen content of water.

2.Drinking water with excessive levels of nitrates lower the oxygen carrying capacity

of the blood and can kill urban children and infants.

6.Sediment
Examples:Soil particles transported from their source ,silt etc

Sources: Land erosion

Effects: clogged estuaries, death of coral reefs,Disrupts aquatic webs and carry

harmful substances.
7.Radio active materials:
Example: radioactive isotopes of iodine, radon, uranium,cesium,and thorium
Sources: Nuclear power plants, mining, nuclear weapons production.
Effects; genetic mutation, birth defects, and certain cancers.
8.Heat - Thermal pollution -
Addition of excess of undesirable heat to water that makes it harmful to
man,animal or aquaticlife or otherwise causes significant departures from the
normal activities of aquatic communities in water”
9.Toxic compounds:
Toxic compounds like cadmium, lead, arsenic etc causes bioaccumulation, blue baby
syndrome etc.
Point and Non- point sources of water pollution

(i) Point Sources

Point sources are discharged pollutants at specific locations through pipes,
ditches (or) sewers into bodies of surface water.
Examples: Includes factories, sewage treatment plants, abandoned
underground mines and oil tankers.

(ii) Non-point sources

 They are usually large land areas (or) air sheds that pollute water by
runoff, subsurface flow (or) deposition from the atmosphere.
 Location of which cannot be easily identified.
Examples Include acid deposition and runoff of chemicals into surface water
from croplands, livestock feedlots, logged forests, urban street, lawn, golf
courses and parking lots.
Characteristics (or) Testing of river water (waste water)
Dissolved oxygen (DO)

Dissolved oxygen is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a given quantity of water

at a particular temperature and atmospheric pressure.

Significance of DO

1. Amount of dissolved oxygen depends on aeration , photosynthetic activity in

water,
2. Respiration of animals and plants
3. Dissolved oxygen present in water is 7mg/l at 25ᵒC.
4. Lower the DO may be harmful to animals especially fish population.

Chemical oxygen demand(COD)

The amount of oxygen required to oxidize all the organic and inorganic impurities
present in the sample using oxidizing agent like K2Cr2O7 & KMnO4

Significance of COD
1. Determine the pollution strength of the river.
2. It is rapid process only takes 3hours.

Biological oxygen demand(BOD)

The amount of oxygen required for the biological decomposition of organic
compounds present in the water sample.

Significance of BOD
1. Important indication of amount of organic matter present in river.
2. The BOD value is most commonly expressed in milligrams of oxygen
consumed per lit of sample during 5 days of incubation at 20 °C. It is written
as BOD5
3. The rate of oxidation and demand depends on the amount and types of
organic matter present in river
CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION:

1. The administration of water pollution control should be in the hands of state

or central government.
2. Scientific techniques are necessary to be adopted for the environmental
control of catchment areas of rivers ponds or streams.
3. Plants, trees and forests control pollution and they acts as natural air
conditioners.
4. The possible reuse or recycle of treated sewage effluents and industrial
wastes should be emphasized and encouraged.
5. Suitable laws and practices should be framed to regulate the discharge of
undesirable flow of water in water bodies .
6. It is not advisable to discharge any type of waste, either treated or untreated.
7. Basic and applied research in public health engineering should been
encouraged.
8. Highly qualified and effective persons should be consulted for effective
control or water pollution from time to time.
9. Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations. • The national goal
should be “conservation of forests” and campaign should be “plant more
trees”.
10. Awareness to public through radio, TV,etc
11. Companies should not discharge any type of effluents either treated or
untreated into rivers, lakes, ponds etc.

Soil pollution
Definition
Soil pollution is defined as, “the contamination of soil by human and
natural activities which may cause harmful effects on living beings.”
Composition of soil

Components %
Mineral matter (inorganic) 45
Organic matter 5
Soil water 25
Soil air 25
1. Industrial wastes

Sources and effects: Pulp and paper mills, chemical industries, oil
refineries, and sugar factories. These pollutants affect and alter the
chemical and biological properties of soil. As a result, hazardous chemicals
can enter into human food chain from the soil; disturb the bio chemical
process and finally lead to serious effects.

2. Urban wastes

Sources and effects: Plastics, Glasses, metallic cans, fibers, papers,

rubbers, street sweepings, and other discarded manufactured products.
These are also dangerous.

3. Agricultural practices

Sources and effects: Huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides,

and weedicides are added to increase the crop yield. Apart from these
farm wastes, manure, slurry, are reported to cause soil pollution.

4. Radioactivepollutants

Sources and effects: These are resulting from explosions of nuclear dust and
radioactive wastes penetrate the soil and accumulate there by creating land
pollution.

5. Biological agents Sources and effects

Soil gets large quantities of human, animal and birds excreta which constitute
the major source of land pollution by biological agents.
 Effects:

Sewage and industrial effluents which pollute the soil ultimately affect
human health. Various types of chemicals like acids alkalis, pesticides,
insecticide, weedicides, fungicides heavy metals etc. in the industrial
discharges affect soil fertility by causing changes in physical, chemical and
biological properties.

1. Some of the toxic chemicals inhibit the non-target organisms, soil flora and
fauna and reduce soil productivity.

2. Sewage sludge has many types of pathogenic bacteria, viruses and intestinal
worms which may cause various types of diseases.
Decomposing organic matter in soil also produces toxicvapours.

3. Radioactive fallout on vegetation is the source of radio-isotopes which enter

the food chain in the grazing animals. Some of these radio isotopes replace
essential elements in the body and cause abnormalities eg. Strontium -90
instead of calcium gets depositedin the bones and tissues. The bones become
brittle and prone tofracture.

4. Radioisotopes which attach with the clay become a source of radiations in the
environment.

5. Nitrogen and phosphorous from the fertilizers in soil reach nearby water
bodies with agricultural run-off and cause Eutrophication. ( over nourishment
of water bodies with N& P).
6. Chemicals or their degradation products from soil may percolate and
contaminate ground waterresources.

Control (or) Preventives measures of soil pollution

The pressure on intensification of farm activities increases for two
reasons.

 Population growth.
 Decrease of the available farm land due to urbanization.
1. Control of Soil erosion
Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices.
Example
 Trees may be planted on barren slopes.
 Contour cultivation and strip cropping may be practiced instead of
shifting cultivation.
 Terracing and building diversion channels may be undertaken.
 Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by
animal wastes would also help to arrest soil erosion in the long
term.
 Maintaining soil productivity is vital and essential for sustainable
agriculture.

2.Proper dumping of unwanted materials

 Excess of waste products by man and animals cause chronic disposal

problem. Open dumping is most commonly practiced method.
 Recently controlled tipping is followed for solid waste disposal.
  The surface so obtained then can be used for housing (or) sports field.

3. Production of natural fertilizers

Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and insecticides should be avoided.
Bio pesticides should be used in place of toxic chemical pesticides.
Example: Organic wastes contained in animals dung can be used for preparing
compost manure and biogas rather than throwing them wastefully polluting the
soil.
4. Proper Hygienic condition
People should be trained regarding the sanitary habits.
Example: Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposal
methods.
5. Public Awareness
Informal and formal public awareness programs should be imparted to
educate people on health hazards by environmental pollution.
Example: Mass media, educational institutions and voluntary agencies
can achieve this.
6. Recycling and Reuse of wastes
To minimize soil pollution, the wastes such as paper, plastics, metals, glasses,
organics, petroleum products and industrial effluents etc., should be recycled and
reused.
Example: Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source.
Integrated waste treatment method should be adopted.

7. Ban on Toxic Chemicals

 Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides like DDT, BHC etc.,
which are fatal to plants and animals.
 Nuclear explosions and the improper disposal of radioactive wastes
should be banned.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Management of solid wastes has therefore become very important in

order to minimize the adverse effects of solid wastes. Solid waste can
be classified as municipal, industrial, agricultural, medical, mining waste
and sewage sludge.

Sources of urban and industrial wastes:

Solid waste can be classified into different types depending on their source:

• Household waste or municipal waste: includes food, paper,

cardboard, plastic, textiles, leather, glass, metal, ashes, electronics
wasteetc.
• Industrial waste: includes toxic chemicals, oil, debris from
construction site,packaging waste, ashesetc.
• Biomedical waste or hospital waste: medicine bottles, expired
medicines, syringes, medical instruments such as scissors, blades
etc.
• Agriculture waste: includes pesticides, crops, water coming from the
fields alsoconsists of small amount of toxicchemicals.
• Nuclear waste: includes radioactive substances coming from
reactors, fuel(uranium, thorium, plutonium etc). It’s highly
dangerous and requires properdisposal.
• Hazardous waste: includes toxic chemical, acids, corrosive,
ignitable andreactive materials, gasesetc.
CLASSIFICATION OF WASTES

• Bio-degradable – Can be degraded (paper, wood, fruits andothers)

• Non-biodegradable – Cannot be degraded (plastics, bottles, old
machines, cans, containers andothers)
 Waste from homes: contains a variety of discarded materials like
polyethylene bags, empty metal and aluminium cans metals, glass bottles,
waste paper, diapers, cloth/rags, food wastes etc.

Waste from shops :mainly consists of waste paper, packaging

material, cans, bottles, polyethylene bags, peanut shells, eggshells,
tea leaves etc.,

Biomedical waste: includes anatomical wastes, pathological wastes,

infectious wastes etc. Construction/demolition wastes: includes debris
and rubbles wood, concrete etc.

Horticulture waste and waste from slaughter houses include vegetable

parts, residues and remains of slaughtered animals respectively.

Industrial wastes: it includes large amount of rubbish, packaging materials,

organic wastes acids, alkalis and metals etc.

Effects of solid wastes:

Every year, major health problems result from hazardous waste like
cancer, respiratory condition, heart diseases etc, so it required
proper disposal.

 When hazardous wastes are released in the air, water, or on the land,
they can spread orcontaminate our environment.

 When rain falls on soil at a waste site, it can carry hazardous waste
deeper into the ground and the can pollute ground-water.
 Bio degradable materials decomposed under uncontrolled and unhygienic
conditions produces foul smell and breeds various types of insects and
infectious organisms besides spoiling the aesthetic of the site.
 Industrial solid waste changes in physio-chemical and biological
 characteristics there by affecting productivity of soils.
 Burning of some of these materials produce dioxins, furans and
polychlorinated biphenyl, which have the potential to cause various types of
ailments including cancer.
Management of Solid Wastes:

For waste management we stress on 3R approach “Reduce, reuse and recycle”

 Reduction in use of raw materials: Reduction in the use of raw

materials will correspondingly decrease the production of waste.
Reduced demand for any metallic product will decrease the mining of
their metal and cause less production of waste.
 Reuse of waste materials: The refillable containers which are discarded
after use can be reused. Villagers make casseroles and silos from waste
paper and other waste materials. Making rubber rings from the discarded
cycle tubes which are used by the newspaper vendors, manufacturing of
rubber bands , reduces the waste generation during manufacturing of
rubber bands.
 Recycling of materials:
 Formation of some old type products.
 Formation of new products.
For discarding solid wastes the following methods can be adopted:

1. Landfills
2. Composting
3. Incineration
 PROCESS OF SOLID WASTE

MANAGEMENT FLOW CHART

Disposal Methods

SANITARY LANDFILL - It is the most traditional method of waste disposal.

 Solid wastes are placed in sanitary landfill system in alternate layers of 80

cm thickness of refuse. Covered with selected earth fill of 20 cm thickness
 After 2 or 3 years solid wastes volume shrinks by25-30%
 Then the land is used for parks, roads, small buildings etc.
 Waste is directly dumped into disused quarries, mining voids.
 Disposed waste is compacted and covered with soil to prevent vermin
and wind-blown litter.
  Gases generated by the decomposing waste materials are often burnt to
generate power.
 It is generally used for domestic waste.

Advantages
 Landfill site is a cheap waste disposal option for the local council.
 Jobs will be created for local people.
 Lots of different types of waste can be disposed of by landfill in
comparison to other waste disposal methods.
 The gases given off by the landfill site could be collected and used for
generating power.
 Simple and economical
 Segregation is not required Landfill areas can be used for other purposes
 Natural resources are retained to the soil.
Disadvantages
 The site will look ugly while it is being used for land fill.
 Dangerous gases are given off from landfill sites that cause local air
pollution andcontribute to global warming.
 Local streams could become polluted with toxins seeping through the
ground from the landfill site.
 Once the site has been filled it might not be able to be used for
redevelopment as it might be too polluted.
 Large area is required Transportations cost is heavy.
 Bad odors, if landfill is not properly managed Insecticides; pesticides should
be applied at regular intervals Causes of fire hazards due to formation of
methane.
COMPOSTING

Conversion of bulk organic waste matter into fertilizing manure by biological

action.

1. In this method, the separated compostable waste is dumped in underground

trenches (1.5m), covered with earth of 20 cm and left over for decomposition.

2. Microorganism (Actinomycetes) is introduced to start decomposition. After 2

or 3 days the organic wastes are destroyed by microorganism and produce
heat. Composting will happen at 75ºC. Finally the refuse can be converted into
powdery brown colored odorless mass called Humus (fertilizer).

3. It contains lots of nitrogen for plants growth, phosphates and other minerals.
  Trench-1.5 m of refuse covered by 20cmsoil
 Actinomycetes (active decomposition)
 2-3 days, 75 degree celsius.
 Brown colored mass- Humus
 Rich in N& P
Advantages
 Increases the water retention & ion exchange capacity
 Industrial wastes can be treated
 Reducing the disposal cost
 Recycling occurs.
Disadvantages
 Non consumables should be separated
 Marketing and awareness are required for farmers
INCINERATION

In this method combustible substances (rubbish, garbage, dead organisms) &

non-combustible substances (glass, porcelain, and metals) are separated first.

 The combustible waste substances are first dried in a pre-heater

 Then it is taken in a large incinerating furnace which incinerate about

100 to 150 ton per hour

 The temperature is maintained between 700ºC to1000ºC

 The left out ashes & clinkers from the furnace is further disposed by

landfill method
 The heat produced in the incinerator is used for generating electricity

though turbines
 The non combustible substances are left out for recycling.
  The ash is mostly formed by the inorganic constituents of the

waste and gases due to organic waste.

 The heat generated by incineration is used to generate electric

power.

Advantages

 Require little space

 Cost of transportation is not high
 Safest and hygienic
 Capacity 300 tons per day and can generate 3MV of power
 Minimum of land is needed compared to other disposal methods.
 The weight of the waste is reduced to 25% of the initial value.
 No risk of polluting local streams and ground waters as in landfills.
 Incineration plants can be located close to residential areas.
Disadvantages
 Expensive Required skilled labor.
 The chemicals that would be released into the air could be strong
pollutants and maydestroy ozone layer (major disadvantage).
 High energy requirement
 Capital and operating cost is high
 Need skilled persons
 Formation of smokes, dusts.

Hazardous waste
It is the waste that has potential threats to public health (or) the
environment.
Examples
 Cleaning solvents (acids and bases).
 Spent acids and bases.
 Metal finishing wastes.
 Painting wastes.
 Sludges from air and water pollution control units.
 Disinfectants and pesticides.

Types and characteristics of hazardous wastes

1. Toxic wastes
These are poisonous even in very small (or) trace amounts. They may have

(i) Acute effects: Causing death (or) violent illness

(ii) Chronic effects: Slowly causing irrseparable harm.

2. Carcinogenic waste
 It causes cancer after many years of exposure.

3. Mutagenic
 It causes major biological changes in the off-spring of exposed
humans and wild life.

4. Reactive wastes
 These are chemically unusable and react violently with air (or)
water.
 They cause explosions (or) form toxic vapours.
5. Ignitable wastes
 They burn at relatively low temperatures and caus an immediate fire
hazard.

6. Corrosive wastes
 These include strong acidic (or) alkaline substances.
 They destroy solid material and living tissue upon contact.
 7. Infectious wastes
 These include used bandages, hypodermic needles from hospitals
(or) biological research facilities.

8. Radioactive wastes
 These emit ionizing energy that can harm living organisms.

Hazardous waste management

Definition: It is the collection, treatment and disposal of waste materials that
can cause substantial harm to human health (or) to the environment.
 Improper hazardous-waste storage (or) disposal contaminates surface
water and ground water supplies as harmful water pollution and land
pollution.
 People living in homes, built near waste disposal sites, may be in a
vulnerable position.
 The best remedy for this problem is to regulate the practice of
hazardous - waste management.

Various steps of hazardous waste management

Hazardous waste management involves the following 4 steps
Step 1: Analysis:
 Physical and chemical properties of hazardous waste must be
analysed before collection and recovery of useful components.
 It is essential because it can be used as a fertilizer, liming
material (or) soil

Step 2: Collection and transport

 Hazardous waste, generated at a particular place, is generally
collected and transported by truck over public highways.
 It can also be shipped in tank trucks, made of steel (or)
aluminium alloy, with capacities upto about 34,000 litres.
 It can be containerized and shipped in 200 litre drums.
Step 3: Treatment (or) Recovery
Hazardous waste can be treated (or) recovered by

i. Chemical method.
ii. Thermal method.
iii. Biological method.
iv. Physical method.
 1. Chemical method
It includes ion-exchange, precipitation, oxidation and reduction and
neutralization.
2. Thermal method

High temperature incineration

It not only can detoxify certain organic wastes but also can destroy them.
Special type of thermal equipment

Examples

Fluidized-bed incinerator, multiple hearth furnace, rotary kiln and liquid-

injection incinerator.

Problem

Hazardous-waste incineration is the source of air pollution.

3. Biological treatment

Example:

Land farming
 Land farming is one method of treating hazardous waste
biologically, in which waste is mixed with surface soil on a suitable
land.
 Microbes that can metabolize the waste may be added, along with
nutrients.

Bio-remediation
 Microbes can also be used for stabilizing hazardous wastes on
previously contaminated sites.
 This process is called bio-remediation.
4. Physical treatment

Example: Evaporation, sedimentation, solidification, flotation and filtration.

The above treatment concentrates, solidifies (or) reduces the volume of
the waste. Solidification is achieved by encapsulating waste in concrete,
 asphalt (or) plastic container. Encapsulation produces a solid mass of material
that is resistant to leaching.

Step 4: Storage and disposal

 Hazardous wastes that are not destroyed by incineration (or) other
chemical processes need to be disposed properly.
 This can be done by the following methods.
1. Surface storage (or) containment systems - Temporary method It
includes
i. New waste piles
ii. Ponds (or) lagoons.

(i) New waste piles

 It is carefully constructed over an impervious base.
 The piles must be protected from wind dispersion, erosion and
leaching.
 Only non-containerized solid, non-flowing waste material can
be stored in a new waste pile.

(ii) Ponds (or) lagoons

 It is lined with impervious clay soils and flexible membrane liners
inorder to protect ground water.
 Leachate collection systems is installed between the liners.
2. Deep-well injection
 It involves pumping liquid waste through a steel casing into a porous
layer of limestone (or) sandstone.
 High pressure is applied to force the liquid into the pores, where it is
permanently stored.
 Storage of Hazardous waste in Land fill
3. Land fills
 It provides at least 3 metres (10 ft) of separation between the bottom
of the landfill and the underlying bed rock (or) ground water table.
 It is also provided with two impermeable liners and leachate
collection system, which pumps the collected leachate to a treatment
plant.

e-WASTE (Electronic waste)

Definition: e-waste describes discarded electrical (or) electronic devices.

 e-wastes are considered dangerous because they contain
hazardous chemicals.
 The hazardous content of e-waste pose a threat to human health and
environment.
 Fig. e-waste logo
Hazardous chemicals in e-wastes (or) Causes of e-wastes
Some of the hazardous chemicals present in some e-wastes are
 Circuit boards in computer have heavy metals like lead and cadmium.
 Batteries have cadmium.
 Cathode ray tubes have lead oxide and barium.
 Most of the electronic products have polyvinyl chloride.
 Plastics have dioxins and furans.
 So, if these waste electronic products are not properly disposed, they
can leach hazardous elements such as lead, cadmium and other
chemicals into the soil and ground water and cause severe threat to
environment.
e-waste management
Definition e- waste management is defined as a holistic method of cutting
down e-waste from the earth to prevent its harmful toxic to deteriorate
earth.
 Management of e-waste should begin at the point of generation.
 This can be done by waste minimization techniques and by
sustainable product design.
Some e-waste management techniques
Waste management in industries involves adopting,
1. Inventory management,
2. Production process modification,
3. Sustainable product design,
4. Use of renewable raw materials.
1. Inventory management
 Proper control over the materials, used in the manufacturing process,
is an important way to reduce waste generation.
 By reducing the quantity of hazardous materials, used in the process,
e-waste could be reduced.
2. Production process modification
 By changing the production process e-waste generation can be
minimized.
3. Sustainable product design
 Efforts should be made to design a product with less amount of
hazardous material.
 Example: New computer designs that are lighter and more integrated.
4. Use of renewable materials
 Bio based plastics are plastics made with plant based chemistry (or)
plant produced polymers.
 Most e-waste has non-degradable polymers in them.
 By using these bio polymers we can reduce ‘e’-wastes.
 Likewise bio based toners, glues and inks are new development e-
wastes.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (OHASMS)
 An occupational health and safety management system (OHASMS) is a
fundamental part of an organization’s risk management strategy. It
enables an organization to protect its work force and others under its
control.
Importance
➢It reduces risk (or) accidents (or) injuries by identifying and mitigating
hazards.
Case studies on OHASMS
1. A Footwear manufacturing industry in Ambur, Tamil Nadu
Objective - The main objective of this case study is to assess the status
of occupational health and safety of a footwear manufacturing industry with
respect to the social compliance.
 Observation
We have visited Azim leather and footwear industries. Ambur, Tamil nadu.Overall
occupational health and safety management practice in Azim leather and footwear
industries was found to be good.
Production Process
Production process of Azim industries starts after collecting the raw materials,
cutting them, assembling, joining the insole and outsole to the shoe, finishing and
packing.Lots of people engaged during this production process. About 70% of
total workers are female. In every section, Azim industries have employed
experts to look after the work of the worker and improve the efficiency.Some of
the encouraging approaches observed in Azim industry.
 Positive attitude of owner towards welfare of the workers.
 Dedicated work force.
 Experienced and professional management team.
 Good relationship between management and workers.
 Disbursement of salary and wages to workers.
 First aid box is found in all floors according to requirements of Indian
labour rules.
 Factory has own health centre to provide primary treatment.
 Certified physician and nurse were available during the visit.
 Factory has its child care centre.
 Factory has well maintained hygienic canteen.
 Factory is conducting fire drill regularly.
 Regular testing of drinking water, etc., is carried out.
Deficiency observed in Azim Industry and solution
 According to environmental conservation rules, labour rules of Indian
Government and International guide lines, below findings are
observed during factory visit and discussed the solutions with
management.
 Management should maintain cleanliness of the area.
  Management should place temperature and humidity measuring
device in workplace because excessive heat and humidity are
injurious for workers health.
 Management should monitor and maintain sufficient and suitable
lightings.
 Factory must display material safety data sheet at all chemical storage
areas.
 Factory should confirm risk assessment for entire work place health
and safety.
Report (or) Conclusion
 Overall occupational health and safety management practice in Azim
industries was found good.
 Though some deficiency were found during this visit, but commitment
of top management towards occupational health and safety was
impressive.
2.Fire work industry in Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu
Safety and well-being is very essential for firework employees because in
fireworks they are handling dangerous materials every day.So the safety
measures are most important in the firework industry. They are handling
chemicals which will affect their health too. According to the factories
Act, safety and well-being is very necessary.
For well-being first aid kit, toilet facilities, cleanliness and medical
camp are very essential.
Objectives of this study
 The main objective of this study is to analyze the industrial safety and
well-being of firework employees in “Kumaran fireworks” in Sivakasi.
 We have visited “Kumaran fireworks” and analyzed overall
occupational health and safety management practices of 257
employees and selected 30 respondents and conducted survey
question regarding safety measures of the employees.
Some of the encouraging approaches observed in “Kumaran fireworks”
  100% of respondent feels that adequate safety measures are taken
during fire accidents.
 93.3% of respondent said limited safety materials are provided during
the work.
 100% of respondent said the air circulation is perfect in the industry.
 90% of respondent said first aid box is available all the time. ➢ 80.5%
of respondent felt the work place is always clean and neat.
 85% of respondent said the building and machines are maintained in
proper way.
Deficiency observed in Kumaran fireworks and solution
 Management should conduct medical camp once in 6 months, in the
industry.
 Management must provide separate toilet facilities for men and
women.
 Proper rest room must be provided to the workers for taking rest in
the break time.
 Enough safety materials like gloves, face mask must be provided while
they are working near chemicals and machines in the factory.
 More safety guards around the machines must be provided.
 Report (or) Conclusion
 Overall occupational health and safety management practice in
“Kumaran fireworks” was found good.
 Though some deficiency were found during this visit, commitment of
top management towards occupational health and safety was
impressive.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Hazard - It is a perceived natural event which threatens both life and property.
Disaster - A disaster is the realization of this hazard.
Definition It is defined as the geological process and it is an event
concentrated in time and space in which a society or subdivision of a society
undergoes severe danger and causes loss of its members and physical
property.
Types
 Natural disasters – refers to those disasters that are generated by
natural phenomena.
 Manmade disasters – refers to the disasters resulting from manmade
hazards.
FLOODS:
Definition: Whenever the magnitude of water flow exceeds the carrying
capacity of the channel within its banks the excess of water overflows on the
surroundings causes floods.
Causes of floods
 Heavy rain, rainfall during cyclone causes floods
 Sudden snow melt also raises the quantity of water in streams and
causes flood
 Sudden and excess release of impounded water behind dams
 Reduction in the carrying capacity of the channels, due to
accumulation of sediments causes floods.
 Deforestation, overgrazing, mining, rapid industrialization, global
warming etc
 Clearing of forests for agriculture has also increased severity of floods
Effects
 Floods cause heavy suffering to people living in low lying areas
because the houses and the properties are washed away.
 Floods damage standing crops and livestock.
 Floods cause a great economic loss and health related problems due
to wide spread contamination.
 Flood Management (Preventive Measures)
 Encroachment of flood ways should be banned.
 Building walls prevent spilling out the flood water over flood plains.
 Diverting excess water through channels or canals to areas like lake,
rivers where water is not sufficient.
  Build check dams on small streams, move building off the flood plains.
 Instead of raising buildings on flood plain , it can be used for wild life
habitat,parks,recreational areas, which are not susceptible to flood
damage.
 River networking in the country also reduce flood.
 Optical and microwave data from IRS is also used for flood
management.
 Flood forecasts and flood warning are also given by the central water
commission.
 Afforestation, proper weather report and prior intimation to the
people.
EARTHQUAKES:
Definition: An earthquake is a sudden vibration caused on earth surface with
the sudden release of tremendous energy stored in rocks under the earth’s
crust.
Occurrence
 The earth’s crust has several tectonic plates of solid rock.These plates
move slowly along their boundaries.When friction prevents these
plates from slipping, stress develops and results in sudden fractures
along its fault lines within the plates.The point on a fault at which the
first movement occurs during an earthquake is called the epicenter.
 Earth quake generated water waves called tsunamis can severely
affect coastal areas.
Causes:
 Impoundment of huge quantities of water in the lake.
 Underground nuclear testing.
 Deep well disposal of liquid waste.
 Disequilibrium in any part of the earth crust
 Decrease of underground water level.
 RICHTER SCALE  SEVERITY OF EARTHQUAKE
 Less than 4  Insignificant
  4- 4.9  Minor

 5- 5.9  Damaging
 6- 6.9  Destructive

 7- 7.9  Major

 More than 8  Great

Effects
 The shocks produced by earthquakes in hilly and mountainous area
may cause land slides, which damage the settlements and transport
systems
 It also collapses houses and other structures due to poor construction
and the people die in thousands depending on the severity of the
quake.
 Severe earthquake results in deformation of ground surface
 Tsunami the seismic waves caused by earthquakes travel through sea
water and generates high sea waves called Tsunami.This causes great
loss of life and property.
Earthquake Management: (or) Control Measures:
 Constructing the earth quake resistant buildings in the earth quake
prone zones.
 Wooden houses are preferred in earthquake prone areas.
 Seismic hazard map should give the information about the magnitude
of intensity of anticipated earthquakes.
CYCLONE
 It is a meteorological process, intense depressions forming over the
open oceans and moving towards the land.On reaching the shores, it
move into the interior of the land or along the shore lines.
 The cyclone once formed may be active from days to weeks and their
speed varies between 180-500 km/hour.
 Cyclone is measured by Saffir-Simpson scale.
Occurrence (or) Formation
  Warm moist air over the ocean rises upward from near the surface.As
this air moves up and away from the ocean surface, a it leaves less air
near the surface.Thus, as the warm air rises, it causes an area of low
air pressure below.
 Air from the surrounding areas with higher air pressure pushes in to
the low pressure area.Then the cool air becomes warm and moist and
rises to form clouds.The whole system of clouds and wind spins and
grows.When the winds in the rotating storm reach 74 mph (119
kmph), the storm is called “tropical cyclone “ (or) hurricane.
Effect
 The damage depends on the intensity of cyclone the damage to
human life, crops, roads, transport, could be heavy.
 Cyclone occurrence slows down the developmental activities of the
area.
Cyclone management
 Satellite images are used by meteorological departments for
forecasting the weather conditions which reveal the strength and
intensity of the storm.
 Radar system is used to detect the cyclone and is being used for
cyclone warning.
 For observing the exact location of cyclone , every half an hour
satellite pictures are analyzed.
 It is difficult to stop the formation of cyclones, but the effect of which
is minimized by planting more trees on the coastal belt, construction
of dams,dykes,embankments,wind breaks.

LAND SLIDES
Definition
When the movement of earthy materials like coherent rock, mud, soil and
debris from higher to lower region due to gravitational forces of attraction is
called landslides.
Causes
 Movement of heavy vehicles on the sloppy regions creates landslides.
 Down hill movement of earth is mainly caused by rain,forces either
increasing the top material weight,lubricating the various layers or
making the slope too steep.
 Earthquake, shocks, vibrations, blasting of explosives and cyclone
create landslides.
 Disturbance in resistant rock by overlying rock of low resistance.
 Erosion in the hilly tract due to run-off water during rainy period also
leads to landslides.
 Underground caves and underground mining activities may also lead
to subsidence.
 Unconsolidated sediments exposed due to logging , road cause
landslides
Effects of landslides
1. Block roads and diverts the passage.
2. Soil erosion increases.
3. Causes damages to houses, crops and live stock.
Landslide management.
 Unloading the upper part of slope.
 Draining the surface and sub surface water from the weak sloppy
regions.Concrete support can be made at the base of the slope.
 Soil stabilization is done using quicklime is also effective in weak
areas.
 Improving the cultivation in the slopping region which resists the soil
erosion.
 Steepness of the slope can be reduced by developing benches.
 Providing slope support like gabions.