AAP 2405 SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

LECTURE NOTES

Facilitator: Dr. Isaac Osuga, Ph.D.

Overview
This unit will equip you with knowledge and practical skills with the husbandry and management of
sheep and goats. This entails acquiring knowledge of different breeds, local and exotic breeds of sheep
and goats in Kenya, their characteristics and management principles. This will hopefully equip you
with the necessary attitudes, knowledge and practical skills crucial in sheep and goat production as
well as cope with challenges and opportunities that may arise in course of animal (sheep and goat)
production in Kenya.
Sheep and goats are collectively referred to as small ruminants. Ruminant animals have four
chambered stomach and chew cud. This course will cover all aspects of sheep and goats production
ranging from origin and domestication to recent advances in breeding and selection like estrus
synchronization, artificial insemination and embryo transfer reproductive technologies. Breeding and
selection is a very important aspect as it forms the foundation of a successful of many sheep and goats
production systems. The management of breeding rams/bucks, pregnant ewes/does, lambs/kids,
weaners and other mature animals in terms of their feeds and nutrition, housing, flock health etc. is
very important. Routine flock management practices like castration, deworming, dehorning etc. will
be expounded satisfactorily.

Course Outline
The major topics to be covered include:
1. Introduction
2. Economic Importance and Constraints of Sheep and Goats
3. Origin, Domestication and Production Systems of Sheep and Goats
4. Breeds of Sheep and Goats
5. Breeding and Selection
6. Reproduction in Sheep and Goats
7. Hormonal Control of the Estrus Cycle and Mating Systems in Sheep and Goats
8. Management Practices for Pregnant Ewes and Does and Newborns
9. Feeding and Nutrition of Sheep and Goats
10. Housing, Identification and Age Determination
11. Routine and Flock Health Management Practices
12. Production and Marketing of Small Ruminant Products
13. Practical: Routine and Flock Health Management Practices
14. Practical: Shearing and Wool Faults

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Table of Contents

Contents
Overview ............................................................................................................................................................. 1
Course Outline ................................................................................................................................................... 1
Table of Contents .............................................................................................................................................. 2
1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 4
1.1 Overview .................................................................................................................................................. 4
1.2 Scientific classification of Sheep ........................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Scientific classification of Goats ........................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Economic importance of sheep and goats .......................................................................................... 6
1.5 Major Constraints of Sheep and Goat Production ............................................................................ 6
1.6 Unique Characteristics of Sheep and Goats........................................................................................ 7
2.0 Sheep and Goat Origin, Domestication and Production Systems ....................................................... 8
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 8
2.2 Origin and Domestication of Sheep and Goats ................................................................................. 9
2.3 Sheep and Goat Production Systems .................................................................................................10
3.0 BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS...................................................................................................16
3.1: Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................16
3.2 Breeds of Sheep and Their Characteristics........................................................................................16
3.3 Breeds of Goat and Their Characteristics .........................................................................................25
4.0 BREEDING AND SELECTION .........................................................................................................32
4.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................32
4.2 Basic Concepts of Animal Inheritance in Animal Breeding ...........................................................32
4.3 Selection of Breeding Animals ............................................................................................................32
4.4 Breeding Methods .................................................................................................................................33
5.0 REPRODUCTION IN SHEEP AND GOATS .................................................................................36
5.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................36
5.2 Anatomy and Physiology of Female and Male Reproductive Tracts ............................................36
5.3 Effect of Temperature on Reproduction ..........................................................................................36
5.4 Factors Affecting Puberty in Females and Males .............................................................................36
5.5 The Estrus (Oestrus) Cycle in Ewes and Does ................................................................................37
5.6 Mating Systems ......................................................................................................................................40
5.7 Management Methods to Optimize Breeding ..................................................................................40

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 5.8 Management Practices for Pregnant Ewes and Does ......................................................................42
5.9 Parturition ..............................................................................................................................................43
5.10 Management of Newborn Animals (Lambs and Kids) .................................................................44
6.0 FEEDING AND NUTRITION OF SHEEP AND GOATS .........................................................46

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1.0 Introduction

1.1 Overview
There are about 150 different domestic and wild ruminant species e.g. cattle, goats, sheep, deer, buffalo,
bison, giraffe, moose, elk etc. They can be classified by the foraging behavior as:
• Grazers which consume mostly lower quality grasses e.g. cattle.
• Browsers which stay in the woods and eat highly nutritious twigs and shrubs e.g. moose and
mule deer.
• Intermediates which have nutritional requirements midway between grazers and browsers
e.g. sheep, goats, and white tail deer. Of this group, sheep are more of a grazer, while goats
and deer are browsers.

The primary difference between ruminants (called polygastrics) and simple-stomach animals (called
monogastrics), such as people, dogs, and pigs is the presence of a four-compartment stomach. The
four parts are the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. Often it's said that ruminants have four
stomachs. In reality, their "stomach" has four parts. Another major physical difference is the
possession of split hooves by ruminant animals.

Camelids (llamas and alpacas) are called "pseudo-ruminants" because they have a three-
compartment stomach instead of four-like ruminants. Horses are not ruminants. They have an
enlarged cecum that allows them to digest fibrous materials. Animals of this type are called "hind-gut
fermenters." A rabbit has a similar digestive system. Table 1 shows some common terms used in
sheep and goats.

Sheep and goats are small ruminant animals and are collectively known as “shoats”. Sheep and goats
form an important economic and ecological niche in the agricultural systems. They also have lower
feed requirements compared to cattle because of their small body size. This allows easy integration of
small ruminants into different farming systems. Small-scale farmers keep them for both subsistence
and economic reasons. Sheep and goats are mainly kept for immediate cash source, milk, meat, wool,
manure, and saving or risk distribution. In addition, they form an integral and important component
of the pattern of animal production in most rural communities. In high potential areas, the importance
of sheep and goats in fulfilling the role once played by cattle for meat, milk and manure production is
being increasingly recognized. The increased demand for sheep and goat meat has also increased their
importance in lowland pastoral areas as a source of cash income, food security, etc. Both readily adapt
to a wide range of climates and available feed supplies. They also have similar housing requirements
and are therefore usually treated together. Kenya has an estimated population of nearly 45 million
sheep and goats (sheep approximately 17 million and goats approximately 28 million).

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1.2 Scientific classification of Sheep
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Bovidae
Subfamily: Caprinae
Genus: Ovis
Species: O. aries

1.3 Scientific classification of Goats

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Bovidae
Subfamily: Caprinae
Genus: Capra
Species: C. aegagrus
Subspecies: C. aegagrus hircus
➢ Table 1: Definition of common terms used in sheep and goats production
Sheep: Ovis aries Goats: Capra aegagrus hircus
➢ Flock - Group of sheep ➢ Group of goats – Flock or Band
➢ Adult male – Ram ➢ Adult male – Buck or Billy
➢ Adult female – Ewe ➢ Adult Female – Doe or Nanny
➢ Young male – Ram lamb ➢ Young male – Buckling
➢ Young female – Ewe lamb ➢ Young female – Goatling
➢ Newborn – Lamb ➢ Newborn – kid
➢ Castrated male – Wether ➢ Castrated male – Wether
➢ Giving birth – Lambing ➢ Giving birth – Kidding
➢ Mating - tupping ➢ Mating - Serving

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1.4 Economic importance of sheep and goats

1. Meat and milk of sheep and goats are good sources of animal protein to man which are of better
quality than plant protein.
2. Sources of raw materials used in industries e.g. leather goods. Goat hair is also used for making
carpets, bag and ropes. Wool is a raw material for the production of clothing for human wear.
3. Serve as means of foreign exchange earnings through export meat (lamb/mutton and chevon) to
earn foreign exchange. Others export dairy products from milk to earn foreign exchange.
4. Serve as source of income to subsistence farmers.
5. Economic utilization of fallow lands and others that are not good for arable crop farming thereby
maximizing the use of the available land resource.
6. Used as gifts or bride price which serve as family wealth.
7. Sources of gainful employment.
8. Farm yard manure from these animals can be used as a source of organic fertilizer.
9. Generally, under the organized production system, ruminant animals are slaughtered during festive
seasons all over the world.
10. Blood and bones obtained from slaughtering of these animals are often recycled and processed
into blood meal, bone meal which are used as components of animal feed.

1.5 Major Constraints of Sheep and Goat Production

There are many factors that constrain sheep and goat production and productivity in Kenya and other
developing countries:
1. Inadequacy of feed resources: There is seasonal variability in the quantity and quality of
feeds which in most production systems is natural grazing and crop residues. .
2. Inadequate infrastructure: Transport and marketing infrastructure are inadequate and in
some cases absent. This affects production as production is mostly in remote areas while
markets are in urban centres. There is inadequate water and feed along the stock routes to
markets. During production, they also travel for long distances in search of feed, minerals and
water.
3. High mortality rates: About 50% of all lambs/kids born die due to various causes. This is a
very important constraint limiting productivity.
4. Inadequate veterinary coverage: This results in high mortality and morbidity. Certain
disease conditions are also causing animals and products to be banned from export markets.
5. Long marketing channels and lack of market information: Producers do not have access
to market information. The system lacks market orientation, which would have been an
important driving force for increased production.

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 6. Low product quality: Poor quality of live animals and small ruminant meat and meat
products prevents penetration into many export markets.
7. Absence or inadequate provision of credit services: Livestock owners have difficulty
obtaining credit to begin or expand production, purchase inputs, increase stock, etc.
8. Low average reproductive rates: Typical reproductive rates average as low as 55 lambs and
56 kids born per 100 mature females per year.

1.6 Unique Characteristics of Sheep and Goats

Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and goats (Capra hircus) are small ruminants with similar routine and flock
health management practices. However, because they are a different genus and species, their behaviors,
foraging practices, diet selections, uses, and several physiological characteristics can be different.
1. Feeding behavior: Sheep and goats are classified as intermediates feeders. Sheep are more like
grazers and easier to herd due to their flocking instincts. Goats are more like browsers and hence
selective feeders: a strategy that enables them to thrive and produce even when feed resources, except
bushes and shrubs, appear to be non-existent. This characteristic is especially desirable in fragile
environments. Thus, the presence of goats in mixed species grazing systems can lead to a more
efficient use of the natural resource base and add flexibility to the management of livestock.
2. Size: Being small-sized animals, sheep and goats require a small initial investment. Their small size,
together with early maturity, makes them suitable for meeting subsistence needs for meat and milk.
Sheep: Live weight: Male: 45 – 160 kg (Adult); Female: 45 – 100 kg (Adult)
Goat: Live weight Male: 70 – 90 kg (Adult); Female: 55 – 77 kg (Adult) (Some meat goats can > 130
kg)
3. Fat deposition: Sheep and goats vary in fat deposition, presumably due to different adaptation
strategies. Sheep lay down more subcutaneous and intramuscular fat from surplus energy. Goats tend
to lay down more internal fat, which is not associated with the carcass. Carcass fat is a delicacy and
fetches a higher price, thus sheep make an important contribution to the household economy.
4. Survival rate during drought: Sheep and goats have higher survival rates under drought conditions
compared to cattle. The water requirements of sheep and goats increase during hot and humid weather,
and it is essential that animals have access to an adequate supply of potable water. It is common for
goats to be watered every four days and still provide a reasonable amount of production as are more
drought tolerant than sheep. In addition, their flock numbers can be restored more rapidly (gestation
period of sheep and goats vs cattle) because of their reproductive rates.
5. High offtake: Due to their short reproductive cycles (short lambing/kidding interval) and high
incidence of multiple births (for some breeds), there is potential for a higher annual offtake of sheep
and goats than seen with cattle. This allows farmers/producers a quick interval of selling part of their
flock and generating cash income. Offtake rate, defined as the proportion of animals sold or
consumed in a year.

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2.0 Sheep and Goat Origin, Domestication and Production Systems

2.1 Introduction
Animal rearing originated during the cultural transition to settled farming communities from hunter-
gatherer lifestyles. Animals are domesticated when their breeding and living conditions are controlled
by humans. Over time, the collective behaviour, lifecycle and physiology of livestock have changed
radically. Many modern farm animals are unsuited to life in the wild.
Domestication (from Latin domesticus) refers to the process whereby a population of living things
(plants and animals) becomes accustomed to a controlled environment by other plants or animals
through a process of selection. Domestication involves more than simply taming. Selective breeding
occurred as humans got rid of animals with undesirable traits, not allowing them to reproduce. Man
started domesticating animals from the wild for his immediate and continual needs.
Taming is the conditioned behavioral modification of a wild-born animal when its natural avoidance
of humans is reduced and it accepts the presence of humans, but domestication is the permanent
genetic modification of a bred lineage that leads to an inherited predisposition toward humans.

Brief history of animals’ early domestication

✓ Humans began domesticating animals sometime between 33,000 and 11,000 years ago
beginning with dogs.
✓ After domesticated dogs came the domestication of livestock animals, which coincided with a
widespread shift from foraging to farming among many cultures.
✓ Ruminants (cattle, sheep and goats) were the first food animals to be domesticated followed
by pigs, possibly to dispose of table scraps and waste products.
✓ Horses and cattle were domesticated primarily for transportation and draft work purposes.
✓ Early people found animals that form large herds or flocks and eat a wide variety of feeds are
easier to domesticate.
Animal domestication falls into three main groupings:
✓ domestication for companionship (dogs and cats),
✓ animals farmed for food e.g. sheep, cows, pigs, turkeys, etc. and
✓ working or draft animals (horses, donkeys, camels).

Prerequisites for domestication

1. The animals should be able to adapt to the type of feed they are offered by humans. This may
be different (in diversity) from what they were used to in the wild.
2. Animal must be able to survive and reproduce in the relatively closed quarters of captivity.
Animals that need a very large territory are not suitable to be domesticated.

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 3. Animals need to be naturally calm. Very skittish or flighty animals will be hard to prevent
escaping.
4. Animals need to be willing to recognise humans as their superior, which means they must have
a flexible social hierarchy.

2.2 Origin and Domestication of Sheep and Goats

2.2.1 Domestic sheep

Domestic sheep are quadrupedal, small ruminant mammals typically kept as livestock. Like most
ruminants, sheep are members of the order Artiodactyla, the even-toed ungulates.
Lifespan: 10 – 12 years
Scientific name: Ovis aries
Gestation period: 152 days
Live weight: Male: 45 – 160 kg (Adult), Female: 45 – 100 kg (Adult)

Sheep (Ovis aries) are believed to have been among the first animals to be domesticated, preceded by
the dog and goat. The domestication of both sheep and goats probably dates back to the pre-settled
agricultural period. It is also believed that most domestication took place in western Asia where the
majority of the present day small ruminant breeds likely originated. Originally, all sheep were hair
sheep. The Mouflon, a sub-species of wild sheep, is thought to be one of two ancestors of all modern
domestic sheep breeds. A horned sheep, it has a short, red-brown hair coat, with a soft, woolly
undercoat and short tail. Wool-bearing animals, with long, woolly tails, were the result of selecting
wild sheep for their soft woolly undercoat. Existence of some ancestral stock of wild sheep extends
from Western Europe to China. These are:
✓ the mouflon of Europe, the Middle East (Asia Minor), and western Iran,
✓ the urial of western Asia and Afghanistan,
✓ the argali of central Asia, and
✓ the bighorn of northern Asia and North America.

It is assumed that the majority of today’s domestic sheep breeds descended from the urial which is
currently found in central Asian countries and in northern Iran extending up to Tibet and northern
China. The hair sheep of Africa and Asia are thought to have descended mainly from the urial. The
argali is believed to have played a significant role in the development of domesticated sheep of India
and the Far East.

In Kenya, there exists a great variation in climate and topography, harboring diversified livestock
species which also have variability among themselves. The sheep found in Kenya could fall into
different breeds and types whose habitat ranges from tropical to temperate(high altitude)

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environments. The present fat-tailed sheep of Kenya (especially northern Kenya) that are believed to
have replaced the original African long-thin-tailed sheep came from Asia through the Strait of Bab El
Mandeb (same sheep found in Ethiopia).
Although sheep were domesticated as dual purpose animals to produce wool and meat, early people
would have valued sheep milk as well.

2.2.2 Domestic goats

Domestic goats are quadrupedal, small ruminant mammals typically kept as livestock. The domestic
goat or simply goat is a subspecies of C. aegagrus domesticated from the wild goat of southwest Asia
and Eastern Europe.
Gestation period: 150 days
Lifespan: 15 – 18 years
Live weight: Male: 70 – 90 kg (Adult); Female: 55 – 77 kg (Adult)
Scientific name: Capra aegagrus hircus

N.B: Coffee was first discovered when goat herders noticed the goats acting very energetic after
nibbling on the coffee beans.

Goats (Capra hircus) are believed to be the second animal domesticated following the dog. It is also
believed that the first goats reached Egypt around 5,000 B.C. and then spread south and west
throughout Africa. African goats could be grouped into three main families: the Dwarf goats of West
and Central Africa, the Savannah goats of sub-Saharan Africa and the Nubian type goats of North
Africa. The parents of the Nubian goats came from Asia.

The indigenous goats of Kenya are found in all agro-ecological zones of the country. It is believed
that these goats have evolved through a process of natural selection that resulted in goats selected for
adaptation and survival rather than production per se. Kenyan goats in the lowlands are highly valued
and reared mainly for milk and meat production. In the highlands, goats are mainly kept for meat.
Goats are also sources of manure, valuable skins and cash income.

2.3 Sheep and Goat Production Systems

Caprine production systems, like other production systems, are not just a combination of crops and
animals with the aim of achieving short-term results. They represent a set of interacting elements,
managed by the farmer, according to their objectives. The farmer will define the objectives influenced
by the social environment in which the farmer operates, the farmer’s degree of technical knowledge,
and the available production factors.

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A caprine production system has production subsystems, whose performance influences the overall
results, for example, the forage system; if there are nutrient deficiencies in the soil, its production is
lower, and then, the animals may not have adequate feed to their needs.

Compared to other domestic ruminants, (namely bovine) goats and sheep, raised in regions of poor
agricultural resources, advantage is clear. These animals combine the advantage of being able to feed
on a variety of low‐quality fodder and shrubs (especially goats), they also manage to walk long
distances, with short breeding intervals with high reproductive rates, they provide high rates of
investment return and, consequently, low investment risk. Goats and sheep also have high energetic
efficiency in milk production, excellent utilization of marginal lands, a very strong flocking instinct
and a docile behavior, which enables herding by children and elders.

Often, the small ruminants, especially goats, are extensively produced using the poorest land,
shrubland, and forest areas where other species cannot survive. This helps to fix the rural population,
reduces the risk of depopulation of marginal or less ‐ favored areas and contributes to the
maintenance of good agro‐environmental practices and landscape preservation.

Sheep and goat production systems can be grouped into two broad classes:
a) Extensive sheep and goat production systems
b) Intensive sheep and goat production systems

a) Extensive sheep and goat production systems

Extensive systems are characterized by large areas to feed the animals, with a low animal density. It
uses soils of poor agricultural ability, located in mountainous areas with large rainfall or in areas of
low rainfall, sometimes with extreme temperatures. There is a use of natural resources, made by sheep
and goat breeds that are perfectly adapted to the environment, very rustic, but with low productivity.

The sheep and goat production in this extensive system usually uses family labor, the number of
animals produced is low and they are usually raised under climate adversities, where probably there
are no shelters, no food supplementation and also often these animals have hygienic sanitary problems,
which leads to poor economic results.

The use of natural pastures can be done in two ways, a mobile grazing system and a sedentary grazing
system. The first is characterized by annual or seasonal movements of the animals with the shepherd
to new places in search for feed, and while sedentary grazing, the animals are driven freely to pastures
near the farm, usually keeping the animals at night in the stable.

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Although the extensive production is not very productive, it is of great importance regarding the
maintenance of the rural landscape and with the aim of the biomass management that avoids the
occurrence of forest fires, and where the goats are well adapted to take advantage of these feed
resources.

Note: The use of sheep and goats in extensive systems can be valued by the quality products.

b) Intensive sheep and goat production systems

Intensification is often associated with a decrease in grazing dependence and an increase in the use of
concentrated feeds, mainly cereals, to supplement natural feeds. At the same time, improved and
balanced feeding practices together with improved breeds in ruminant systems enabled more efficient
feed ratio conversion to meat and milk production rather than to maintenance of the animals.

The intensive system implies a high density or animal concentration per area unit, under reproductive
and sanitary control, and the feeding process includes advanced technologies. Sometimes, some farms
seasonally require higher feed and labor resources such as through the calving season and milk
production, so the supplementing of animals with concentrated feed may be needed at this point, but
the remaining year is mainly grazing.

In order to meet the feed requirements of animals in an intensive system, pastures must have high dry
matter yields per hectare, good growth throughout the year, in both regions with regular rainfall or
holdings with irrigation systems. It is important that the breeds used in the intensive system have a
high fertility and growth rates than the adaptability to the environment.

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Table 1. Main differences between intensive and extensive production systems

Extensive system Intensive system

Eco‐agrarian conditions

Dependent on the climate (environmental) factors Independent of the climate factors

Scarce resources Constant forage production

Intermittent feed cycles Continuous feed cycles

Parasitic problems Good sanitary condition

Use of marginal land and nonagricultural resources Use of technology

Low animal density High animal density

Animal biotypes

Autochthonous breeds Improved breeds

Low productions High productions

Multi‐production exploration Animals with high energy efficiency

Great ability of adaptation Increased sensitivity to diseases

Lower fecundity and fertility Increased fecundity and fertility

Environment

Natural environment Artificial environment

Long productive cycles Short productive cycles

Traditional system Industrial system

More specific Sheep and goat production systems that fit into the above systems include:

1) Pastoral production system

In general, pastoral systems are associated with agro-ecological zones (AEZ) that are too dry to sustain
crop production. These are characterized by little or no crop agriculture and high mobility in search
of grazing and water.
Under East African conditions, pastoral systems of production are found at altitudes below 1500
m.a.s.l. and where the annual precipitation is less than 500 mm. The following characterize pastoral
systems:

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• Livestock are maintained as a principal activity. Fifty percent of household revenue comes from
livestock or more than 20% of household food energy is derived directly from livestock or livestock-
related activities.
• Rangeland is the main land resource.
Livestock species consist of camels, cattle, sheep, goats and donkeys. In recent years, pastoralists have
shown an increasing interest in keeping larger numbers of sheep and goats. There are more goats than
sheep in this system. Milk and meat are the two outputs. In drought years, goats gain more importance
as suppliers of milk to the household. Goats also help to control bush encroachment.
Pastoralists depend on their livestock not only for their income but also for their survival.
Consequently, risk avoidance is very important to the pastoralist. Livestock management is, therefore,
directed towards risk minimization, which tends to reduce productivity. Pastoralism is ecologically,
economically and socially important for sustainable development in dry lands.

2) Agro-pastoral production system

This system is characterized by less integration with crop production as compared to the crop–
livestock production systems. Producers under this system have a permanent residence and their
movement is limited in terms of both distance and duration. The system is characterized by a high
degree of dependence on milk and meat production. Some crop agriculture is practiced around the
permanent homestead. This is also a low input / low output system. The system is usually practiced
below 1500 m.a.s.l. but with higher rainfall to support short season crops compared to the pastoral
system.

3) Ranching
Ranching is a range-based system of livestock production similar to the pastoral systems but with
different production parameters, livestock functions and management. Ranching can be considered
as a modern land-use system. It is a labor-extensive system focusing on the production of marketable
commodities from one or two selected species. This is mainly in the form of producing live slaughter
animals for meat. The main function of the system is to generate cash income.
Management of livestock is characterized by grazing within defined borders and an individual tenure
system with possibilities of intensified feeding and watering of animals. The form of ownership in
ranching could be parastatal, cooperative or private (companies or individuals). Ranches can be
differentiated by the following characteristics:
✓ Targeted livestock species and product: Although the most common system is cattle
ranching, sheep and goat ranching for the production of skins, wool (Merino), and meat
(Dorper sheep and Boer goats) exist in various parts of the world.
✓ Intensity and level of development: This system of ranching works with a minimum of
fixed investments and extensive management practices. This system requires heavy investment
and improvement practices and well-planned and executed livestock management and grazing
systems.

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 ✓ Stratified system: In this case, ranches could be specialized to produce weaner lambs or kids
for fattening or finishing by other production systems.
The ranch system of production is important in arid and semi-arid zones of Africa, particularly in
eastern and southern Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia and South
Africa). Ranches are also found in some highland areas.
Both highland and arid/semi-arid ranching can be undertaken in Ethiopia. Sheep ranching can be
established in the highland sheep–barley system, where there is very little crop cultivation, with
targeted production objectives of either meat, coarse wool or both. Extensive ranching can also be
established in the arid/semiarid areas of the lowlands or pastoralist areas for market-oriented sheep
or goat meat production using specialized breeds such as the Dorper sheep or Boer goat and their
crosses with local stock.
It is possible to produce sheep and goats that are more uniform and targeted to satisfy the increasing
export and domestic market if such systems could be introduced into the pastoral and agro-pastoral
systems.
4) Urban and peri-urban (landless) sheep and goat production system
This system involves the production of sheep and goats within and at the periphery of cities.
Quantitative data is not available on the importance of urban and peri-urban production systems but
it is not uncommon to observe sheep and goats in urban areas. Feed resources are usually household
wastes, market area wastes, mill leftovers, by-products and roadside grazing (particularly in the peri-
urban system).
In addition, small-scale sheep fattening is emerging as an economic activity in many growing cities.
The viability of this activity depends on its acceptance into the formal extension services. It could
either be a high input / high output or low input / low output system.

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3.0 BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS

3.1: Introduction
A breed is a group of animals of the same species having similar appearance and qualities and is
usually developed by selection. It is developed as a result of intensive selection of desirable traits within
a large population until the selection goal has been achieved, usually after the fourth generation when
it’s considered as a pure breed. A cross-breed is an animal that results from mating of two pure breeds
of the same species. In most cases, the cross has better qualities than either of the parents. This
phenomenon is called heterosis or hybrid vigour and is widely used in livestock improvement.
"Grading-up" is a process whereby the cross bred female offspring is continually crossed with the
desired male until a synthetic breed is realized. Pedigree animal is the one showing pure breeding
e.g. a pedigreed sheep having a record of the dam, sire, grand dam etc. all of whom are pure bred. The
sheep and goats found in Kenya could fall into different breeds and types whose habitat ranges from
tropical to temperate environments.

3.2 Breeds of Sheep and Their Characteristics

Sheep fall into four categories: mutton, wool, dairy and dual (multi) purpose: e.g. mutton and wool,
or mutton and milk. However, a majority of the current commercial breeds have been developed with
specialization to one primary product in mind e.g. milk or mutton.

Note: When selecting animals, it is important to think about the environment that they are to live in.
Many pure bred animals come from Europe, where the climate is cool and good quality fodder plenty.
These sheep are not usually suited for hot dry areas with little available fodder.

Sheep can also be classified into:

Hair Sheep breeds: Hair sheep breeds include those with virtually no woolly fibers that shed their
fleeces annually (and don't require shearing), and breeds whose fleeces contain too much hair to be
suitable for the commercial wool market. From a purely practical standpoint, a hair sheep is generally
any sheep that doesn't require annual shearing. This can be a "pure" hair sheep or it can be a shedding
breed. Some primitive sheep breeds also shed their coat e.g. Dorper; Nyanza Fat-tail; Persian Black
Head; Red Masai and crosses of these four with local stock. The hair sheep are mainly reared in the
arid and semi-arid areas.
Wool and Dual purpose breeds: The major wool and dual purpose sheep breeds include: Merino;
Corriedale; Hampshire Down; Romney Marsh and crosses of these breeds with local stock. The wool
sheep are reared mainly in the cool high rainfall areas.

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Common breeds suitable for different regions in Kenya:

Region Sheep

High altitude Corriedale, Merino, Hampshire Down, East African fat rumped type

Medium altitude Dorper, East African fat rumped type, East African fat tailed type

Low altitude Red Masai, Dorper, Persian black head

Common Sheep breeds in Kenya

1) Dorper Sheep
The breed was developed in South Africa around 1940-50 by the Department of Agriculture from a
cross between black head Persian and Dorset Horn. It was developed to produce maximum number
of lambs with good mutton qualities, which could be marketed off arid and extensive grazing
conditions. Although this breed was developed originally for the more arid areas, today they are widely
spread throughout the continent.

By 1950 the first consignment of Dorper had arrived in Kenya at Katumani Research Station, from
where rams were sold to Eastern Province.

Figure 3.0.1 Dorper Sheep

Physical characteristics: The typical breed standard involves a short loose light covering of hair and
wool (wool predominating on the forequarter) with a natural clean kemp underline. The breed is
barrel-shaped, hornless (polled) with short, dull black or white hair on the head, often with black feet;
they have short hair and coarse wool; the black headed ones are called "Dorper" and the white headed
ones "White Dorper".

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Peculiarity: The peculiar features for the Dorper is that they were developed for arid to semi-arid
environments, but are well adapted to, and perform favorably under a variety of climatic and grazing
conditions, including intensive feeding systems. They are non-selective grazers and fit well in cool
climates where they can be used to convert feed resources, which are not utilized or underutilized by
other livestock. They have a high lambing percentage reaching up to 180% and can produce 2.25
lambs on an annual basis. Rams reach sexual maturity at an early age, rams have been observed to start
working by five months. Their inherent growth potential is such that they can attain live weight of 36
kg at 3-4 months of age. They have also a very even temperament.

Utility: The breed is not only ideally suited to the purpose for which it was bred, but is adaptable to
a variety of conditions throughout the world and makes a huge contribution to mutton production
worldwide. It has a long breeding season which is not seasonally limited so that lambs can be dropped
at any time of the year. Lambing intervals is about eight months, so under good conditions they can
drop lambs three times in two years. The average litter size is 1.19 to 1.5. A lambing percentage of
150% can be reached under good conditions while, in exceptional cases, 180% can be attained. Thus
on average a Doper ewe can produce 2.25 lambs on an annual basis.
Table 1 Reproduction per 100 Doper ewes mated

Variable Number of ewes Lambs born Lambs weaned

Ewes mated 100
Ewes lambed 95
Ewes with single lambs 61 61 60
Ewes with twin lambs 30 60 58
Ewes with triplet lambs 4 12 10
Total number of lambs 133 128
Source: Campbell (2000)

✓ Average birth weight was 3.48 kg for males and 3.37 kg for females.
✓ Adult live-weight was 74 kg for males and 44 for females (DAD-IS 2005).
✓ The Dorper lamb can reach a live-weight of about 36 kg at the age of 3-4 months.
✓ The daily gain averages at 243 g. This ensures a high quality carcass of approximately 16
kg and is associated with the inherent growth potential of the Dorper lamb and its ability
to graze at an early age.
✓ In more marginal areas of Kenya's Machakos District, Dorper ewes registered 10% twining
rate, 78% lambing (fertility) rate, average birth weight of 3.6kg, pre-weaning lamb growth
and mortality rates of 178 g/day and 14%, respectively. Average pre-weaning daily gains
is 183 g/day and lamb mortality rate is 3.5% and with average weaning weights of 23.8 kg
at 109 days.
Dorper ewes produce a large quantity of milk, are instinctively fond of their lambs and therefore care
for, and rear, their offspring well. The Dorper ewe will nourish her lambs under difficult conditions.
When the ewes are left alone they will lamb easily, and will retain and look after their lambs. A well-

18
grown Dorper lamb has carcass qualities with respect to conformation and fat distribution, which
generally qualifies for a super grading. Dressing percentages can reach 54%. In South Africa, Dorper
hides are sold as top quality leather under the name "Cape glovers" and represents 20% of the total
carcass value.

The Dorper are not susceptible to fly strike and fleece rot. They have a high degree of
disease resistance. Dorper sheep are susceptible to gastro-intestinal nematodes (Haemonchus contortus)
and have higher mortality from birth to yearling compared to Red Maasai and their crosses.

2) Red Maasai
Origin and distribution: Also called Tanganyika sheep. They are sheep of the semi-arid regions of
Kenya and Tanzania especially southern Kenyan (Kajiado and neighboring counties and northern
Tanzanian rangelands).

The red Masai sheep are tolerant and/or resistant to the notorious Haemonchus contortus parasite.
They are predominantly kept by the Maasai pastoralists as well as by the neighboring tribes.

Physical characteristics: The Red Maasai sheep is identified by its relatively large body size and thick
red hair. However, when all of the strains are considered, the sheep are multicolored, the most
preferred color by the Maasai and therefore the commonest being red, brown and occasionally pied.
Average height at withers is 73 (range = 72-75) cm for males and 62 (range = 58-66) cm for females.
Average heart girth and body length for females are 75.1 cm and 63.3 cm, respectively. They are short,
fat-tailed and slightly fat-rumped. In populations where a fat rump is a predominant feature indicate
that they may in times past have crossed with either Dorper or Black Head Somali/Persia sheep.

Figure 3.2 Red Masaai Sheep

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Peculiarity: It resists worms and other diseases. On two indicators that together provide a reasonably
reliable picture of resistance - faecal egg count and packed cell volume - Red Maasai ewes and lambs
performed significantly better than Dorper sheep. The associated lowered mortality rates led to much
faster flock growth and productivity. The breed has also been shown to resist bluetongue virus
infection and a more suited breed to survive under high trypanosome challenge.

Utility: The Red Maasai are used for their mutton and lard. Their reproductive performance in terms
of lambing rate, is reported to be 80-84%, which is comparable to the Dorper sheep breed under
medium rainfall zones in Kenya; the lambing interval is about 340 days, which is long compared to
other East African sheep breeds, but can be improved to 246 days when crossed with the Dorper; the
average litter size is about 1.13-1.21, which is lower than the Dorper and their crosses.

• The average birth weight is 2.7 kg and

• Average weaning weight is 15 kg with weaning rates at 97% and average daily gains at 128 gm
respectively.
• Mature weight for males is on average 45.5kg and 35 kg for females.
• Pre-weaning daily weight gain is 105 gm for males and 98 gm for females.
• The mortality (death) rates (28%) of Red Maasai sheep is better than that of Dorper sheep
(66%) under moderate to high worm (Haemonchus contortus) infections.
• Crosses between Dorper and Red Maasai performed 828 gm.

The scope for control of Helminthosis using treatments among the resource poor farmers is limited.
That is why the Red Maasai sheep are recommended to pastoralist and smallholder farmers whose
flocks experience a problem of severe haemonchosis.

3) Persian Blackhead
The Blackhead Persian is a fat-tailed breed of domestic sheep. The sheep is originally from Somali
land. The breed is also a type of hair sheep, meaning they do not grow wool and tolerate heat better
than wooled breeds and are raised primarily for mutton. The Blackhead Persian has a white body and,
as their name would suggest, an entirely black head.

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Both sexes are polled. On average at maturity, rams weigh 68 kg and ewes 52 kg. Average birth weight
is 2.6 kg. Ewes lactate for approximately 84 days; produce 50 kg of milk with 5.9% fat.

4) Merino sheep
Origin and distribution: Merino sheep were introduced into Africa in 1789 with imports of Spanish
Merinos. By the mid-1800s the breed was spread over many parts of Africa. From 1891 onwards,
American Vermont type Merinos were introduced. The African Merino is a composite of Spanish,
Saxony, Rambouillet, American and Australian Merinos. These sheep are found mainly in semi-arid
to sub-humid climates in Kenya and at medium to high altitudes under ranching and agro-pastoral
management systems.

Physical characteristics: They are uni-coloured with white coat and fine-wool. They are heavy
animals: males have 100 kg mature weight and females 60 kg. The average weights at birth, weaning
and 18 months in female animals are 3.58 kg (range = 2.5-4.5 kg), 15.53 kg (range = 10.7-24.2 kg),
and 56.2 kg (32.0-65.3 kg) respectively.

Peculiarity: The breed is adapted to high rainfall grassland regions. Animals of this breed are reported
to be less susceptible to fly strike because of their smooth body in comparison to sheep with skin
folds.

Utility: The Merino is mainly used for its wool; the fleece weight per year is 5.5 kg. Ewes produce an
average of 7.15 kg wool ranging from 2.6-9.7 kg. The wool is medium to strong white, which is over-
crimped in comparison to the Merino wool of the same strength. The wool on average measures 22-
23 microns without any kemp fibres. Average staple length is 7.1 cm and ranges from 5.97-8.29 cm.

Merino Sheep

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 5) Corriedale
Corriedale is a dual purpose breed, meaning they are used both in the production of wool and mutton.
Corriedale have a long life span, and are hardy and evenly balanced all over the body. Corriedales are
docile, easy care mothers, with high fertility. They adapt well to a wide range of climate conditions.
They are large framed and plain bodied, polled and have a broad body. Corriedales produce a thick
stapled, bulky fleece, which is popular with spinners and can be used for a range of handspun garments.
Their dense fleece is medium-fine and high yielding, with good length and softness, somewhat
between medium wool and long wool. Corriedale lambs produce good quality carcasses and have a
high pelt value.

The Corriedale produces bulky, high-yielding wool ranging from 31.5 to 24.5 microns diameter. Fleece
from a mature ewe will weigh 4.5 to 7.7 kg with a staple length of 8.9 to 15 cm. After cleaning, a yield
of 50 to 60% of the raw fleece weight is common. Mature rams will weigh 79 to 125 kg, ewes can
weigh from 59 to 82 kg.

Corriedale Sheep

6) Romney Marsh sheep

The Romney is in general an open-faced breed with long wool that grows over the legs in full.

Description:
Head wide, level between ears, with no horns or dark hair on the poll. Eyes are large, bright and
prominent and the mouth sound. Face in ewes full, and in rams broad and masculine in appearance.
Nose and hooves are black. Neck well set in at the shoulders, strong and not too long. Shoulders well
put in and level with the back. Chest is wide and deep; back straight and long, with a wide and deep
loin; Rump wide, long and well-turned. Tail set almost even with the chine. Thighs well let down and
developed. The face is white, and the skin is of pink pigmentation. Ribs are well sprung; legs well set,

22
with good bone and sound feet. Sheep stand well on their pasterns. The fleece is of white colour, even
texture and a good decided staple from top of head to end of tail and free from kemp.

Fleece characteristics
Romneys produce a heavy fleece. A healthy mature ram can yield at shearing upwards of 10 kg per
year, while flock averages for breeding ewes are typically above 5 kg. The increased fleece weight of a
long-wooled sheep comes from the longer fiber length produced. The "clean yield" (net weight after
thorough washing) is typically high for Romneys, 75-80%; this is a higher yield than is got for most
fine-wooled sheep.

Romney Marsh sheep

7) Hampshire down
This is the largest of the medium sized breeds after Suffolk. It has high growth rate with an average
size of 80Kg. they are also quite prolific at 125 – 150% lambing rates.

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The breed is good for cross breeding for upgrading purposes. The sire is very fertile, aggressive and
big in size making them the most important sire breeds. But conformation is limiting by the heavy
shoulders at the front quarters tapering towards the rear quarters. Wool quality is low with dark and
black fibres in the face and neck.

8) Romney marsh
The breed was developed for wool and mutton. The wool produced is long and coarse therefore of
low quality and the mutton and fat lambs are also of poor quality.

Romney marsh can survive in marshy and wet areas because of their resistance to foot rot. The hooves
are black and very hard making it difficult for pathogens to enter. They are efficient utilizers of pastures
but the meat is delicate as it tends to retain tainting from pastures. Their cool temperament makes
them easy to handle.

9) Somali sheep
Also Known As: Berbera Blackhead, Blackheaded
Somali.
The Somali is a hair sheep which is reared primarily
for meat production. They are white with a black
head. Both sexes are polled and the breed belongs to
the fat-rumped type.
The Blackhead Persian, which was developed in
South Africa, originated from the Somali breed.

They are fat ramped mainly found in Somali, North Eastern Province of Kenya and Sudan. They are
hardy; the skin quality is higher than other indigenous hair sheep and is important for mutton
production.

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3.3 Breeds of Goat and Their Characteristics
Goat breeds are classified as:
a. Dairy breeds: They are reared for the milk production purpose e.g. Toggenburg, Anglo-Nubian,
Saanen, Alpine etc. The milk yield ranges from 5 to 10 liters, with butterfat 3% to 5%
b. Meat breeds: They are reared for the meat purpose e.g. Galla. Red Masai, etc.
c. Fiber and Skin breeds: They are reared for fiber and skin e.g. Angora, Cashmere, etc.

a) Meat Breeds

1) East African Goat

9 month old well grown East African doe 1 year old East African buck crossed with a German alpine

This is one of the most successful domestic goat breeds suitable for the semi-arid lands. They are
found all over East Africa from the arid areas to urban areas. Their colour ranges from pure white to
black over a variety of spotted and reddish brown colours. The males often have a pronounced mane
running the full length of the back. Horns vary from 2.5 cm to 20 cm long. Tassels (sometimes referred
to as "toggles", which are situated at the top of the neck, behind the jaw) are found in 30% of the
breed.

Body weight: Males up to 35 kg, females 25-30 kg

Sexual maturity is usually reached in 5-6 months, but growth rate is slow. Yearlings seldom weigh
more than 20 kg. The average age at first service ranges between 458 to 655 days with a kidding interval
of 400 days. They have a kidding rate of 65% with a prolificacy of 0.95-1.10 meaning that they rarely
twin. They have a birth weight of 3 kg and a weaning weight of 6.3 kg. They are kept mainly for their
meat, as milk production usually is only enough for one single kid. They do have a potential for
selection and are useful breeding stock for upgrading breeding. In their present unimproved form
their greatest advantage is the ability to survive in almost any environment. Among the valuable
characteristics of these goats is a tolerance to heartwater (an endemic tick-borne disease) and worms
and possibly other diseases such as mange.

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 2) Galla Goat

Galla buck Galla doe

Galla are indigenous to the Northern areas of Kenya. It is also known as the Boran or
the Somali goat. They have further been classified into 2 sub-types, a short eared medium sized goat
called "Degyir" and a larger pure white type called "Degeun". Adult bucks of the Degeun type can
weigh up to 70 kg, while a female will reach a kidded weight of 45-55 kg.

In order for the Galla goat to comply with the Kenya Stud book, all Gallas must be white haired with
black skin, nose, feet and under tail.

A third sub-type of Galla is kept by the Boran, which has colour around the head and lower legs with
a black stripe down the spine. These are reputed to be the best milk yielders of all the Galla type goats.
Galla females are long lived and will continue to breed and rear healthy kids up to 10 years of age.

Galla do not like cold wet climates and thrive best in low altitude, preferably in acacia bush country.
They have a wonderful high growth rate after prolonged droughts and their larger size enables them
to reach browse that the smaller East African goats cannot reach.

Boer

Mature in kid pure bred boer female Black head boer ram

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With its origins in South Africa, the Boer goats is a commercial goat with many things in its favour
including early maturity, has high average growth and weaning weights, and are prolific non-seasonal
breeders. Combined with a high dressing percentage, these goats can produce a good return for
investment. Goats reach marketable size at approximately twelve to fourteen weeks of age depending
on nutrition and management.

Doe kidding rates are between 120% and 180% however kidding percentages of over 200% are not
uncommon. Does have a fertility cycle of between 18 and 21 days and a gestation period of 150 days.
Further, since they are not seasonal breeders Boer goats are capable of producing three kiddings in
two years under favourable conditions.

It is white with red/brown head and neck, has prominent horns and broad drooping ears. Well-
muscled and strong boned. They respond well to concentrate feeds. The breed is valued for its meat
and milk. Milk yield, however, is relatively low, ca. 0.7 - 1 lit/day. Butter fat 6%.

b) Milk Breeds

3) Alpine

Alpine doe
Kenya Alpine dairy goat (KADG) is a breed resulting from the grading-up of the local East African
goat using pedigree German Alpine germplasm. This was and is still being done using natural service.
The breed has four registration classes (genotypes) which include:

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Table; Four registration classes of Kenya Alpine dairy goat

Percent German
Genetic Group Crosses
Alpine blood

Foundation 75% Back cross 1 (R1): PAB x F1 Females

Intermediate 87.5% Back cross 2 (R2): PAB x F2 Females

Appendix 93.75% Back cross 3 (R3): PAB x R2 Female

Interse mating of Back cross 3: R2 Male x R2 Female.

Pedigree >93.75%
Offspring will remain 93.75% or more

PAB x R2 Female -->Grading-up.

OR
Offspring will be 93.25% or more

(c) Andrew G. Marete

Studies have shown that as the percent of pedigree blood increases, the goat becomes more prolific
producing daily milk yield of 2.4 - 4.6 l when milked twice daily. Under proper management, the goat
can come on heat at 8 months of age. However, the average age at first kidding is usually twice or
more than this age. The goat comes to heat every 24 days with a gestation period of 150 days.
The KADG is the most promising small stock dairy breed in Kenya since it has been widely accepted
in many Counties in Central, Eastern and Western regions; however maximal production is more
dependent on the level of management as opposed to the genotype.
KADG goat ears are pricked and the hair is long. The goat is medium size. Colour black and brown
but considerable variations occur. Horns are scimitar shaped. The adult male weighs 65 kg, female 60
kg. The breed is valued for its milk and meat. Butterfat 3.6%.

4) Toggenburg

Pedigree in kid maiden Toggenburg Mature pedigree Toggenburg buck

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It originated from Toggenburg in Switzerland. There are two sub-types of Toggenburg. The British
Toggenburg males weigh up to 100 kg and females about 70 kg.
The Swiss Toggenburg males weigh about 70 kg and the females about 50 kg.
They have an average birth weight of 3.3 kg with a weaning weight of 19 kg and average daily gain of
136 g/day. Studies have shown that the smallholder farmers are able to maintain comparably high
levels of milk production in the first three parities, with yields of 475 - 520 l in the first, second and
third parity respectively. The kidding interval has a range of 302+-117 days. Studies have demonstrated
that the Toggenburg goats are able to perform and thrive reasonably well under the low-input farming
conditions.
Colour: brown, chocolate, fawn with white line each side of the face from above the eyes to muzzle,
edges of ears, on rump and tail. Legs white from knees down. Males tend to have longer hair than the
female.

Suffer from heat stress in hot climates. Do not thrive if badly housed, kept on poor pasture or put
away when they are wet. These are 'high quality animals and should only be kept if conditions are right.
For smaller farmers and, particularly, nil grazing situations, cross bred Toggenburgs would be a better
option.
Purpose: milk production and cross breeding (improving local breeds). Butter fat 3.8%. Average litter
size: 1.8

5) Saanen

Saanen goat
With its origin in West Switzerland, Saanens are the largest and one of the calmest of the dairy breeds.
The Saanen breed also produces the most milk on average and tends to have lower butterfat content,
about 2.5% - 3%. Estrous cycle length for Saanen goats is 21 days on average, while their average first
mating age is 10 months. The age at their first use for breeding (kidding age) is 13 months. Estrous
can be seen from 2-5 year olds.

29
The breed is large and white/ biscuit in colour with black spots on nose, ears and udder and with pink
skin pigmentation. Ears point forwards and upwards. The conformation is good and udders tend to
be very well developed. Short coat. Mostly polled. Sometimes the kids are born with both male and
female organs (Hermaphrodism). This is associated with the gene for polledness and it is advisable to
only keep horned bucks for breeding. The face is straight and slightly dished. Does do not respond
well to strong sunlight and in very hot areas performs best under shade. Mature male weighs 80-100
kg while mature female weighs 60-70 kg and the breed has a high twining rate. Saanen have outward
curving horns.
Purpose: milk production, up to 3-5 l of milk per day under good management. Butter fat 3.5%.

c) Dual purpose breeds

Unless under specialized management aimed at a defined production goal, most goat breeds are dual
purpose breeds.

6) The Kenya Dual purpose goat (KDPG)

The KDPG is a synthetic breed resulting from a four way cross of mating two indeginous breeds and
two exotic breeds, i.e. Galla X E.Agoat X Toggenburg X Anglo-Nubian. It is mainly used for both
milk and meat, thus the name "dual purpose". The KDPG produces a daily milk yield of about 1.1 kg
with peak milk yield occuring on the 7th week after kidding. It constantly produces milk for 4 months.

The cross breeds have high twinning rates and faster growth as well as larger body size than the local
breeds.
The cross breeds fetch double the price compared to the local goats, due to larger body size and more
kids due to high twinning rates. This introduction has led to much higher profits from goat rearing
among the farmers undertaking this practice. (Personal communication from R. Muthama, Katumani
farmer and Dr. Kariuki, Director, Katumani Research Station, Kenya).

d) Goats for wool fibre

7) Angora goat

Angora goat

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Angoras are the most efficient fiber producing animals on earth, producing up to 25% of their own
body weight in fiber annually. It is a small breed, usually white. The haircoat is long with undulating
locks and ringlets of fine, silky hair. The top quality fleece of purebreds may be 0.5-1kg, but slightly
more in males and wethers. They are bearded. Spring moult is natural and shearing occurs just before
spring in temperate countries. They are not very prolific and twinning is less frequent than in other
breeds. Angora goats are not raised for milk production but for fiber. Gestation is 145-150 days.
Angoras breed seasonally, usually from August to January. Does are induced into estrus by the
presence of a buck and cycle every 19-21 days until pregnant.

A full grown buck in good condition can handle between 20 and 45 does; a kid buck will handle
substantially fewer, probably no more than 10. When about to breed, the farmer should shear them
and delouse and begin increasing their plane of nutrition several weeks in advance of breeding (called
flushing). It is especially important that the buck is shorn particularly if it is hot. A shorn buck will be
a more vigorous breeder and settle more does on the first attempt. It is also a good idea to worm and
trim hooves a few weeks before breeding. Finally, Angora goats grow slowly and most do not reach
their full body size until two years of age. For this reason, most does are bred for the first time as
yearlings.

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4.0 BREEDING AND SELECTION
4.1 Introduction
Animal breeding is a branch of animal science that addresses the evaluation of the genetic value of
domestic livestock. When selecting animals, it is important to consider the environment that they are
to live in. Many pure bred animals come from Europe, where the climate is cool with adequate good
quality fodder. These sheep and goats are not usually suited for hot dry areas with inadequate and
poor quality fodder. In Kenya, there exists a great variation in climate and topography, harboring
diversified livestock species which also have variability among themselves.

4.2 Basic Concepts of Animal Inheritance in Animal Breeding

The main objective of breeding and selection is to maximize output (meat, milk, wool, skin) per unit
input. Phenotype is what one can see or measure for a given trait and genes are responsible for the
many manifestations within a trait. For certain traits, the environment can also affect the phenotype.
This relationship can be expressed as:

P = G + E where, P is the phenotype, G is the genotype or genetic makeup, and E is the

environmental effect in which the animal makes its record. Examples of environmental effects are
plane of nutrition, frequency of deworming, ambient temperature, etc. The traits may either be
qualitative or quantitative.

Qualitative traits are controlled by only one or a few gene pairs and are affected only slightly or not
at all by the environment and fall into discrete categories such as coat color or the presence of horns
e.g. hornedness where an animal with the genetic makeup will have horns regardless of the plane of
nutrition.
Quantitative traits are influenced by the action of many genes each with relatively small effects, and
by the environment. The consequences of segregation of genes in quantitative traits can no longer be
seen because the different classes of the trait become more or less continuous. Most production traits
are of this type. In addition, the performance of sheep and goats can be improved either by improving
the environment of the animals and/or improving their genetic potential or genotype.

4.3 Selection of Breeding Animals

In Kenya and the world, there is a large variation among sheep and goat breeds. Different breeds have
different environmental adaptability e.g. animals which are adapted to cool areas may not be suitable
to hot areas. Animals which have evolved within a certain area are usually better adapted to that
particular area than other breeds. Therefore, selection among breeds should be based on performance
data collected from groups raised in the same environment (cohorts). Comparisons need to be made
in the actual environment in which animals will be raised.

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For breeding animals: the selected traits must be: heritable (capable of being transmitted from parents
to offspring), variable (differences must exist between animals for that trait), and measurable e.g. weight
is an easy trait to measure because all that is needed is a weighing scale. Traits to be considered in a
sheep and goat selection program include those that will enhance meat, wool, and milk production.
For meat production: selection will be on the number and weight of offspring weaned per female
per year. The number of offsprings born per flock per year can be increased by decreasing the number
of females which fail to lamb/kid, by increasing litter size, or by increasing the frequency of parturition.
Females which fail to produce offspring after consecutive opportunities should be culled. With proper
selection, it is possible to realize a sizeable increase in litter size. The acceptability of twins depends
on the environment (particularly nutrition) and management system. Weights at birth, weaning, six
months and one year are important in selection of animals for meat. Weight at birth would have an
additional influence on survival of animals.
For wool sheep: selection is based on weight of fleece. In general, selection for increased fleece
weight will also result in a longer staple, but it might be necessary to pay particular attention to staple
length for those sheep used for this purpose. Other wool quality aspects, such as crimp, diameter, etc.,
may not be important in Kenya, at least in the near future.
For milk production: selection of animals is in terms of quantity of milk produced per year. This is
a function of quantity of milk per lactation, lactation length and parturition interval.

In purchasing animals from the market, major consideration must be given to the animal’s health,
age and physical appearance. The behavior and posture of an animal are reflections of its health
status. Age can be determined from the number and size of teeth. Therefore, the farmer is advised to:
a. Buy animals that are free from obvious diseases such as catarrh, diarrhea and skin
diseases. Also ensure that, animals are free of ecto-parasites such as fleas and ticks on
their bodies.
b. Avoid animals with physical defects such as lameness. Walk the animal around to find
out, blindness and malformations.
c. A lean or stunted animal should be avoided. Buy only alert, fine looking and active
animals with bright eyes and fine coat.
d. Ewes (female sheep) should be between 1.5 and 3 years of age.
e. A 1.5 to 2 year-old sheep has two broad (big) central teeth, a 2 to 2.5 year-old has 4,
while those aged about 3 years have 6 big teeth.
f. Buy in small batches from many markets in different localities so as to have animals
that are as unrelated as possible and to have genetic variety in your foundation stock.

4.4 Breeding Methods

There are two methods of animal breeding namely inbreeding and outbreeding. There are various
factors that are considered in choice of a breeding method. Of importance, local sheep and goat breeds
are often well-adapted to local climate conditions, nutrition, pests and diseases etc. Feeding and
management improvements can bring increases in animal productivity. Changing the genotype will

33
often improve productivity drastically and enable more efficient use of any extra feed and improved
management that can be provided.

It is very important that all sheep and goat keepers keep a breeding record for each animal as a way to
prevent inbreeding. Records should be restricted to:
• Those essential for the conduct of the improvement scheme and its cost-effectiveness.
• Records that can be maintained and sustained.
• Records that can be analyzed.

Selection is usually done within cohorts within a flock, i.e., among animals of the same age which have
been raised together. Genetic progress through selection depends on heritability, selection differential
and generation interval. Depending on the objective, sheep and goat selection programs could focus
on a single trait or on multiple traits. Selection for a single trait permits faster progress than selection
for more than one trait. Therefore, selection for more than one trait should be avoided unless it is
very important (e.g., in case of negative correlation between traits). There are three methods of
selecting for more than one trait; tandem selection, independent culling levels and index selection.

In selection of animals, different sources of information should be used. These include selection based
on individual performance, ancestral performance, progeny performance and performance of other
relatives (half sibs, full sibs, uncles and aunts).

There are various breeding selection schemes that provides the framework for putting the various
selection methods into practice necessitated by small flocks of sheep and goats kept by individual
owners. The small flock size limits selection which works most effectively when large numbers of
animals are involved. A system of selection by which farmers pool their sheep and goats together
would be more appropriate e.g. Nucleus selection schemes which is a system whereby a number of
flock owners agree to cooperate by deciding on common breeding objectives and by pooling their
animal resources. Breed improvement can take place at different levels in a sheep or goat population,
e.g., from an individual or village flock standpoint.

A breeding program can be presented as a circular activity (Figure 1). In each generation, the program
starts with formulating the breeding goal and ends with a critical review of the results obtained in the
next generation. The evaluation might lead to a reconsideration of the breeding goal for the next round
of selection.

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Figure 1: A breeding program

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5.0 REPRODUCTION IN SHEEP AND GOATS
5.1 Introduction
The the survival of a species largely depends on its ability to reproduce its own kind. Reproduction
is a series of events (gamete production, courtship, fertilization, gestation, reproductive behavior,
lambing/kidding, etc.) that terminates when a young is born. In this process, males and females play
different reproductive roles. A high rate of reproductive efficiency in sheep and goats is crucial for
perpetuation of the species, production of meat, milk, skin and fiber, and replacement of breeding
stock. Reproduction is affected in sheep and goats by day-length period which is not very pronounced
in the tropical climate.

5.2 Anatomy and Physiology of Female and Male Reproductive Tracts

The female reproductive tract consists of the vulva labia, vagina (copulatory organ), cervix, and body
of the uterus, uterine horns, oviduct (also called Fallopian tube) and the ovary. The male reproductive
system consists of testicles, which produce sperm and sex hormones, a duct system for sperm
transport, accessory sex glands, and the penis, or male organ of copulation, which deposits semen in
the female.

5.3 Effect of Temperature on Reproduction

Increased body temperature can lower the reproductive rate in ewes/does by decreasing ovulation
rate, delaying heat cycles or by increasing embryonic mortality. The following are the effect of
increased body temperature on reproduction:
➢ Lower the reproductive rate in ewes/does by decreasing ovulation rate,
➢ Delay heat cycles or by increase embryonic mortality.
➢ Heat stress affects the process of spermatogenesis and can render bucks and rams temporarily
sterile for 6 to 10 weeks although there are physiological mechanisms in male assist in
regulating temperature.
➢ For these reasons, it is important to assist animals in maintaining body temperature, especially
during times of the year when ambient temperature is high. A simple provision of shade in
range production systems could reduce the negative effect of heat.

5.4 Factors Affecting Puberty in Females and Males

Puberty is the point of sexual development at which the animal becomes capable of reproduction (first
ovulation in the female and first spermatozoa in the ejaculate of the male), but animals are not yet
fully sexually mature at this stage.
➢ Puberty is caused by an increase in secretion of pituitary hormones, which in turn lead to an
increase in size and activity of the gonads.
➢ Sexual maturity is the time when the animal expresses its full reproductive capacity.

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 ➢ Puberty may often be reached without adequate physical growth to support reproduction in
both the male and female sheep and goats.
➢ In females, the first ovulation may not necessarily coincide with first estrus. Female goats and
sheep reach puberty as early as four months although they will not reach sexual maturity until
12 months of age. Issues such as weight, breed, genetics, and the season effect the female’s
age of maturity.
➢ In males, puberty is the time when complete separation of the prepuce. In the penis in
immature rams and bucks, the penis has adhesions that prevent it from being fully extended.
At puberty, these adhesions dissolve under the influence of testosterone and the penis can be
fully extended. This may occur as early as 5 months. However, full reproductive competence
may not occur until 15 months of age.

Several factors such as nutrition, body weight, breed, season of birth and growth rate are known to
influence the age at puberty. Nutrition is among the most significant factors influencing reproductive
development and the onset of puberty. These factors are:
➢ A low plane of nutrition delays first estrus and reduces uterine and ovarian development.
➢ Increasing the overall plane of nutrition generally advances the onset of puberty.
➢ Overfeeding will decrease subsequent fertility and impair mammary gland development and,
therefore, care must be taken to avoid overfeeding.
➢ Energy and protein restriction influences age at puberty, with energy restriction having a greater
influence on delaying onset of puberty than protein restriction.
➢ In most sheep and goat breeds, attainment of puberty is dependent on achieving satisfactory body
weight, usually between 40 and 70% of the mature body weight. A late-maturing breed like the
Somali goat is known to attain puberty at a later age.
➢ Age, weight and growth rate seem to be interacting in determining the process of onset of puberty.
In general, faster growth rates resulting from higher planes of nutrition enable kids to attain
puberty at a younger age and heavier body weight than kids reared on low planes of nutrition.
➢ Complete separation of males and females during the early growth period may delay the onset of
puberty.

5.5 The Estrus (Oestrus) Cycle in Ewes and Does

Once puberty is reached, sheep and goats display a polyestrous (repeated reproductive cycles) pattern
of reproductive activity. The cycles give does and ewes repeated opportunities to become pregnant
throughout their productive lifetime. For this reason it is important to know the signs of estrus. The
estrus cycle refers to the number of days between two consecutive periods of estrus (heat), is on
average 17 days in ewes and 21 days in does. The cycle is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-
gonadal axis, which produces hormones that dictate reproductive events. Estrus cycles show variation
and thus are classified as short, normal and long. Short estrus cycle and irregular estrus periods may
be seen in some goats.

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The reproductive axis is composed of the hypothalamus, pituitary, and the ovary. The estrus cycle may
be divided into two phases, namely:
➢ The follicular phase (growth and expulsion of the ova or egg), and
➢ The luteal phase, which starts after ovulation and formation of the corpus luteum (yellow
body).

In addition, the estrus cycle can further be classified in to 4 distinct phases namely estrus, metestrus,
diestrus and proestrus (Table 3).

Table 5.1: Different phases of the estrus cycle in does.

Stage Day of cycle Characteristics
Estrus 1–2 Final growth and ovulation of 1–2 pre-ovulatory cycles.
Sexual receptivity of does.
Cervical mucus thinner and more copious, cloudy towards ovulation
Metestrus 3–4 Functional organization of corpus luteum.
Diestrus 5–18 Luteal phase.
Proestrus 19–21 Growth of pre-ovulatory follicles.

The detection of estrus is very important when artificial insemination is conducted and when mating
is controlled, i.e., sires do not run with females. For this reason it is important to know the behavioral
signs of estrus of does and ewes (Table 3).

Table 5.2: Behavioral signs of estrus of does and ewes

Does Ewes
• Bleating continuously • The signs of estrus in the ewe are not
• Swollen – red colored vulva obvious unless a ram is present.

• Flagging of the tail • The vulva is swollen and redder than

usual
• Frequent urination
• Discharge of mucus but is difficult to see
• Cervical mucus discharge, which causes hairs
in a ewe with a tail or fleece.
to stick together
• Restlessness
• Mounting other goats and seeking the buck

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All of the symptoms mentioned may not be exhibited by a doe or ewe in estrus. The best confirmation
of estrus is when the doe or ewe stands when being mounted. This is commonly called ‘standing heat.’
The duration of estrus is variable i.e. shorter in younger ewes and does but longer in older animals.
Normal duration will be 24 to 36 hours. Therefore, a doe or a ewe should be mated 12 to 24 hours
after you have seen her on heat.
➢ Heat signs in the afternoon, the goat/sheep should be mated the next morning.
➢ Heat signs in the morning should be mated in the evening.

Estrus Detection Techniques

It’s relatively easy to detect estrus in sheep and goats compared to that in cattle as heat signs are well
pronounced, particularly in goats. Still, where controlled mating or artificial insemination (AI) is used,
regular detection of estrus is necessary through:
• using a teaser ram or buck: Teasers are males that have been either vasectomized or epididymized.
• tying an apron made of leather or canvas around the body of a ram/or buck to prevent the penis
from entering the vagina of females.
• using a teaser with a marking harness: When a ram/buck with a marking harness mounts a female
in estrus, some of the marking pigment will be transferred to the rump of the female.

5.6 Estrus Cycle and Mating Systems

When artificial insemination is conducted and when mating is controlled, i.e. sires do not run with
females the detection of estrus is very important. In tropical conditions, breeds of local sheep and
goats are either non-seasonal breeders or exhibit only a weak seasonality of reproduction. Females
ovulate and exhibit estrus almost the whole year round, even though short periods of anovulation and
anestrous are detected in some females. Two main hypotheses can be raised to explain the near-
absence of seasonality: either the females are insensitive to photoperiod, or the amplitude of the
photoperiodic changes is too small to induce seasonality. Once males and females are sexually mature,
they will display characteristic behavior prior to mating. Unless restrained, both sexes will make an
effort to reach each other and mate. Smell, sight and noise are the common attractants. In sheep, the
fat tail of a ewe may make mating difficult or even impossible. Experienced rams push the tail aside
to let the penis penetrate the vagina. Young and inexperienced rams may need assistance, i.e., hand-
mating may be essential.

5.6.1: Hormonal Control of the Estrus Cycle

• Estrus cycle is controlled by GnRH (Gonadotrophic Releasing Hormone) released by the
hypothalamus.
• Just before the onset of estrus, the pituitary gland, under the control of the hypothalamus in
the brain, releases an increasing amount of Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicular
Stimulating Hormone (FSH).

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 • Growth of follicles is regulated by pituitary hormones – FSH, LH.
• LH stimulates the final maturation of the follicle containing the eggs (oocytes) and stimulates
the follicle to produce the hormone estrogen.
• Estrogen brings the ewe into behavioral estrus or ‘heat.’
• The rising concentration of estrogen stimulates a surge in LH that stops further secretion of
estrogen by the follicle.
• Once the egg has been released, LH transforms the follicle into a Corpus luteum (CL).
• CL produces progesterone, which in turn suppresses pituitary activity.
• If pregnancy does not occur, lysis (destruction) of the Corpus luteum occurs due to
endogenous release of prostaglandin from the uterus, thus causing a fall in the progesterone
level, and the cycle starts again.

5.6 Mating Systems

The following types of mating could be practiced depending on the system of production namely flock
mating, pen mating and hand mating. In terms of fertility, hand mating is the least efficient as the male
is restricted in breeding the female. A variation of this system is observed where a producer may have
few female sheep or goats but no breeding male. One sire kept by an individual will serve sheep or
goats of many surrounding owners who bring ewes/does in estrus to the male. In some instances ewes
or does in estrus are brought to the market, where male animals are available for breeding.

5.7 Management Methods to Optimize Breeding

Estrus cycle control in sheep and goats is useful for synchronizing estrus in groups of animals to be
bred or inseminated at a particular time or inducing out-of-season estrus where there is a distinct
seasonality of breeding. Estrus synchronization techniques revolve around the artificial shortening or
lengthening of the period of progesterone dominance of the luteal phase. There are various methods
that can be used to optimize breeding in sheep and goats. These methods are: Estrous stimulation,
Ram/ buck effect, Telescoping and Hormonal method. However, use of exogenous hormones or
their synthetic forms, and the male effect are two main methods of estrous synchronization:

The male effect: The male can be used to stimulate estrus activity of females that have been
previously isolated from males for a period of 3–4 weeks. After the period of separation, the male
animal is suddenly introduced to the group of females.
In response to introduction of the male, ewes/does secrete increasing amounts of LH and FSH, which
result in ovulation after 2 or 3 days of male introduction (in some ewes/does response may be slower,
i.e., 4 to 7 days). In cyclic goats, highest frequency of estrus was observed within the first 3 days of
buck introduction.
The following factors affect response to male introduction:
✓ Within breeds, rams/bucks with greater sexual activity induce responses in more ewes.
✓ Rams that were given libido tests and ranked as highly sexual induce estrus more effectively
than males with low libido test scores.

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 ✓ Ewes/does that are on a high plane of nutrition will respond better than those nutritionally
stressed.
✓ The longer lambs/kids have been weaned from ewes/does, the better the response of the
ewes/does.

Hormones: Among the hormones of reproduction, progesterone can be considered as the ‘organizer’
of the estrus cycle. Manipulation of the progesterone status of the animal provides a convenient means
of controlling the estrous cycle.

Two classes of hormones are available for estrus synchronization. These are progesterone or one of
its synthetic analogs and prostaglandins. Progestagens extend the luteal phase of the estrus cycle. Most
commonly, progestagen-containing vaginal pessaries are employed. The ‘Y’-shaped silicone-coated
devices known as ‘Controlled Internal Drug Release (CIDR)’ impregnated with progestagen are also
used. As an alternative to vaginal pessaries, implants impregnated with a highly potent synthetic
progestogen ‘Norgestomate’ may be inserted under the skin on the upper side of the ear. The period
of application of exogenous progestagen is approximately equal to the life of the corpus luteum.

Withdrawing the exogenous progesterone supplement will enable pulsatile release of GnRH,
stimulating FSH and LH release leading to estrus and ovulation.
In the second class of hormones, prostaglandin F2α can be used to regress the corpus luteum
(interrupt the luteal phase). Prostaglandin F2α, by its luteolytic activity, can synchronize estrus, but
only when an active corpus luteum exists at the time of application.
In most cases, treatment with PG F2α is given twice, 7 days or 11 days apart, to make sure all functional
corpora lutea regress.

Reproductive Technologies
Reproductive technologies include: artificial insemination (A.I), cryopreservation of gametes or
embryos, induction of multiple ovulations, embryo transfer, in vitro fertilization, sex determination of
sperm or embryos, nuclear transfer, cloning etc. In Kenya, the most common technologies are artificial
insemination (A.I) and embryo transfer (ET).
a) Artificial insemination (AI): is the process by which sperm is placed into the reproductive
tract of a female for the purpose of impregnating the female by using means other than sexual
intercourse.
Specifically, freshly ejaculated sperm, or sperm which has been frozen and thawed, is placed in the
cervix (intra-cervical insemination) (ICI)) or in the female's uterus (intrauterine insemination) (IUI) by
artificial means.

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In the actual procedure which has become widely used in animal breeding nowadays, semen is
obtained from a male animal and, after being diluted, is deep-frozen, after which it can be stored for
long periods of time without losing its fertility. For use, the semen is thawed and then introduced into
the genital tract of a female animal in heat.

The practical use of artificial insemination in animals was developed during the early 1900s in Russia
and spread to other countries in the ’30s. Its chief advantage is that the desirable characteristics of a
bull or other male livestock animal can be passed on more quickly and to more progeny than if that
animal were mated with females in a natural fashion. Ten thousand or more calves have been produced
annually from a single bull through the use of artificial insemination.

b) Embryo transfer (ET): refers to a step whereby one or several embryos are placed into the
uterus of the female with the intent to establish a pregnancy. The practice of embryo transfer
is an ever changing science that involves three major events.
1. It begins with selection, superovulation, and artificial insemination (A.I.) of the donor animal.
2. Next, the embryos are recovered from the donor through either surgical or nonsurgical means,
evaluated, and then frozen or transferred fresh.
Lastly, the recipient animals are synchronized to be in the same stage of the estrous cycle as the donor
when the embryo was recovered and receive the embryos through surgical or nonsurgical techniques.

5.8 Management Practices for Pregnant Ewes and Does

Nutrient requirements for ewes and does vary. Their body weight does not remain constant
throughout the year, but changes with stage of production. They are lowest for ewes and does during
maintenance, increase gradually from early to late gestation, and are highest during lactation. Therefore,
knowledge of stage of pregnancy is important to provide necessary care to a pregnant animal.
Decisions affecting feeding management are improved significantly by knowing ewe body weight and
condition score at three distinct stages of production. Parturition is defined as the process of giving
birth. It occurs at the end of the gestation period, or pregnancy, as it is more commonly called, and
it’s a very critical management phase in the production cycle of livestock.
The pregnancy period of ewes and does is divided into four phases: three weeks before breeding, early,
mid and late gestation. Flushing is commonly done 2 to 3 weeks before and after mating. While
steaming up is done 3-4 weeks prior to lambing/kidding in ewes/does. Critical time periods include
the first and last months of pregnancy (nutritional stress) and the first month after lambing (period of
environmental adaptation for the lamb). Periods in which reproductive wastage occurs are between
ovulation and implantation for embryonic loss, between implantation and parturition for fetal loss and
between parturition and weaning for lamb loss.

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Gestation is the period from fertilization to delivery of the fetus. The average duration of gestation
periods in ewes and does is fairly constant and ranges from 147 to 152 days. To some extent, it could
be influenced by:
✓ Age of the dam: younger ewes and does have shorter gestation than older ones.
✓ Litter size: dams carrying twins have shorter gestation than those carrying singles.
✓ Nutrition of the pregnant ewe or doe: low level of feeding on range shortens gestation.
✓ Breeds: small and dwarf breeds have shorter gestation periods.

During the early or first month of pregnancy it’s recommended that the body condition of the
ewe/doe is maintained. This minimizes embryo and early fetal losses. This is important as a very high
level of nutrition as well as a very low one can be as detrimental for embryo survival.

Mid or second and third months of pregnancy is characterized by rapid growth of the placenta.
However, growth of the fetus in absolute terms is very small. Loss in body weight should not exceed
5% over this period. Feeding should be targeted at avoiding excessive weight loss.

During the late or fourth month of pregnancy up to parturition, nutrient intake should be
increased as the gain in mass of the fetus amounts to 85% of its birth weight. However, care should
be taken to avoid excessive feeding to reduce the chance of difficult birth. Concentrate sources of
energy should be available as the rumen size is limited because of the developing fetus (steaming up).
Multiple-bearing dams should receive more feed than single-bearing dams. Dams at an advanced stage
of pregnancy should be separated from the main flock in order to give them effective care. In addition,
pregnant ewes/does should be brought into lambing/kidding pens 4 - 6 days before parturition and
provided the maximum possible comfort. Bedding material should be provided if possible. Finally,
pregnant animals should not be handled too frequently.

5.9 Parturition
The process of parturition is called “lambing” in sheep and “kidding” in goats. The process of
parturition is complex in sheep and goats. In the ewe, maternal plasma progesterone declines 7 to 15
days before delivery while in does such a decline is noted 24 hours before delivery. The level of
estrogens increase during the last days in ewes and gradually in does. These events stimulate the
muscles in the uterus to contract. The fetus and placenta are expelled and this is followed by the
involution (shrinking of the uterus to normal size). Approximately 2 weeks before lambing/kidding
some changes occur where the udder and teats swell (more prominent in dairy breeds) and the vulva
becomes loose.

Parturition is traditionally divided into three stages: Stage one. Stage two and Stage three. Ewes and
does give birth normally without assistance in a majority of cases. However, maiden ewes/does in
poor condition or small-framed females mated to big males can have difficulty in parturition and may
have to be assisted. In a few cases assistance may needed and it’s important to get acquainted with the

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normal birth presentation to be able to provide appropriate assistance. If it is a normal birth you
should first see the front legs and nose or head of the lamb. In this case, delivery can be expected
within fifteen minutes. However, you should seek professional assistance if the ewe/doe is still
laboring after 30 minutes.

5.10 Management of Newborn Animals (Lambs and Kids)

The management of lambs/kids starts before birth. Therefore, proper feeding and care of the dams
during the last trimester of gestation is necessary to have healthy, vigorous offspring. Lambs/kids with
birth weight within the normal range for the breed can be raised without much difficulty but those
with low birth weight or are weak at birth need special attention. In addition, ewes and does nursing
twins or triplets need to be fed sufficient quantities of good quality hay and concentrate (if available)
to meet the high requirements during early lactation. There is also a need to provide plenty of clean,
fresh drinking water.

The umbilical cord should be trimmed if needed using clean scissors and then dipped in tincture of
iodine (recommended concentration is 7%) immediately after birth. As much as possible, protect
newborn lambs/kids from cold, rain and wind.

Mothering instinct in primiparous mothers (first kidders/lambers) often needs some time to fully
develop. Do not handle lambs/kids too frequently immediately after birth and let the dams lick and
recognize them properly. The dams and their offspring should be confined together soon after birth
or stay around the homestead for at least 4 days in order to ensure the establishment of firm dam-
offspring relationships.

After birth, colostrum has to be fed during the first 24 hours; feeding colostrum later than this period
confers little or no advantage. This is because the intestinal wall of the newborn is only permeable to
antibodies (large protein molecules) during the first 24 to 36 hours and absorption is most efficient
during this period. If the ewe/doe has inadequate colostrum, cow colostrum can be given. Newborn
lambs/kids are pre-ruminant animals in the early stage of development. It will take some time (usually
6–8 weeks) for the rumen to develop. When concentrate feed or hay is offered, consumption starts at
about 2–3 weeks of age.

Weaning is the time when lambs/kids stop feeding on liquid milk or milk replacer where thereafter
the lambs/kids depend entirely on dry feed. This change has to be gradual to avoid losses due to faulty
feeding management. Weaning age is variable for different production systems and depending on
whether the milk is used as human food. However, in most production systems in the tropics, weaning
at 120 days is common. Milk consumption by lambs and kids falls to a negligible level after 110 days.
At the same time, consumption of herbage increases. Lambs have been successfully weaned as early
as 14 days; kids as early as 28 days. Early weaning is usually defined as weaning prior to 90 days of age;
60 days is most common. Late weaning is anything after that. It is generally better to wean based on

44
weight rather than age. Weaning should ideally take place when lambs/kids are consuming adequate
amounts of solid feed. Some authors suggest that the young could be weaned successfully once the
birth weight has increased 2.5-fold. This would mean a lamb with birth weight of 3 kg can be weaned
at 7.5 kg body weight, which is attained at 2 to 3 months of age.

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6.0 FEEDING AND NUTRITION OF SHEEP AND GOATS

6.1 Introduction
Nutrition is the study of processes in which an animal consumes, digests, absorbs, and metabolizes
the components of a feedstuff to promote maintenance, growth and productive functions. It also
includes the removal of unusable elements and waste products of metabolism from the body. The
science of nutrition also includes animal feed/food and the nutrients it contains. The concepts most
commonly used in nutrition relate either to the animal (as the user of feed) or the feed (as the source
of nutrients). The most important factor affecting performance of sheep and goats is nutrition. Poor
nutrition results in low rates of production, affects the immune system and in extreme conditions of
malnutrition, death can occur. Approximately two-thirds of improvements in livestock productivity
in many animal production systems can be attributed to improved nutrition. Nutrition accounts for
about 70% of the total cost of livestock production. Sheep and goat production in Kenya suffers from
feed shortages and this is aggravated by seasonal availability of forage and crop residues in the
highlands and by recurrent and prolonged drought in the lowlands. Improving performance through
better nutrition is determined by three interrelated considerations:
• The availability of nutrients;
• Type of feeding system; and
• The level of feeding management.

6.2 Anatomy and Physiology of Sheep and Goat Digestive System

Sheep and goats are ruminant animals. Ruminants are usually horned mammals of the sub order
Ruminantia, characterized by their "four" stomach chambers and "cud-chewing" behaviour. The cud
is a food bolus that has been regurgitated. The stomach is compartmentalized into a rumen, reticulum,
omasum and abomasum (Figure 2) thereby confirming the capacity to handle coarse and fibrous feeds
e.g. leaves, grasses, shrubs and other herbage rich in cellulose and hemi cellulose.

Figure 6.1: The Four Compartments of Ruminant Stomach

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Fibre is broken down into the three short-chain (volatile) fatty acids (VFAs), namely acetic, propionic,
and butyric acids by bacteria and protozoans (including ciliates such as Paramecium) by fermentation.
The stomach can also handle other foodstuffs. They eat quickly, storing masses of grass (grazers) and
foliage (browsers) in the rumen. Most of them have small or no upper incisors.

In ruminants, newborn have only a partially developed rumen and reticulum and are functionally
monogastrics animals. They are unable to use ordinary carbohydrates except lactose (the carbohydrate
in milk) or grain based feeds. Milk is digested in a well-developed abomasum. Milk bypasses the rumen
and goes directly into the abomasum through the “esophageal groove,” a tube formed from two folds
of muscular tissue in the rumen that close upon suckling action of the lamb/kid. Dry feed must be
consumed for the rumen to develop.

Ruminant animals (polygastrics) digestive tract compared to non-ruminant animals (monogastrics

which are animals with a simple stomach such as swine, dogs, cats, humans, etc.) have some
differences. Ruminant animals have:
• Ability to digest carbohydrate sources not digested by monogastrics.
• Ability to use sources of non-protein nitrogen (NPN) to satisfy part of their protein needs.
• Large stomach volume to accommodate and utilize bulky feeds.
• Mouth and teeth well adapted for prehension and grinding of fibrous feeds.
• Well-developed salivary glands for production of large volumes of saliva.

6.3 Nutrient Requirements for Sheep and Goats

Food is any material which after ingestion by animals is capable of been digested, absorbed and utilized
for physiological processes. Food can be described as an edible material that nourishes. However, not
all components of ingested materials are digested. The components of food which are capable of been
utilized by animals are described as Nutrients. They are supplied by feedstuffs, used by animals for
maintenance and production. Therefore, sheep and goats need feed to meet nutrient requirements for;
a. Maintenance: about ½ of the feed is meant for maintenance. At this level no growth or
production is taking place. Therefore maintenance requirements must be met before supplying
any other body functions like:
✓ Energy to support essential physiological functions.
✓ Maintenance of body temperature.
✓ Repair of body tissue.
b. Reproduction: Pregnancy and delivery make demands on the dam which should be met
largely from her diet. The fetus increases in size quickly during the last third of gestation,
drawing on the body reserves of the dam if she is not fed adequately.
c. Production: Nutrients should be supplied above those required for maintenance to allow for
following productive functions:

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 ✓ Growth: Any growth requires nutrients; sheep/goats require large quantities of energy
and protein during the main period of growth between weaning and attaining mature
body weight.
✓ Lactation: Milk production requires high levels of energy, protein, and water.
✓ Extra activity: Livestock in pastoral systems walk long distances in search of feed,
particularly in the dry season. Animals may walk 10–15 km each day, which requires a
great deal of energy.

There are six essential nutrients: Water; Carbohydrates (crude fibre + Nitrogen free extract);
Fats/Lipids; Proteins; Vitamins and Minerals. The entire discussion on the principles of animal
nutrition is aimed at understanding of these 6 nutrients. What they are, and how are they used by
animals. Energy is not a nutrient but is derived from the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and protein.
Nutrient requirements of sheep and goats depends on their physiological state and function and
contains allowances for maintenance and production (Figure 3). Sheep and goats require 3 to 5% of
their body weight as dry matter intake. Plants contain mostly carbohydrates whereas proteins
predominate in animals. Minerals and vitamins occur in relatively small quantities in both plants and
animals.

Figure 3: Impact of nutrition on herd productivity

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6.4 Feed Materials used in Feeding Sheep and Goats
There are two main classes of feed materials used in feeding classified as roughages and concentrates
according to the amount of specific nutrients they supply. Roughages form the main component of
ruminant feed and provide a range of nutrients to animals. Roughages are plant-based feedstuffs and
comprise over 50% of all feedstuffs fed to livestock animals especially ruminants. Roughages are feeds
with a minimum crude fiber content of 18% and a maximum content of total digestible nutrients
(TDN) of 70%. There are two types of roughages based on their moisture content, namely dry
roughages e.g. hay and succulent roughages e.g. silage. Dry roughage has 10-15% moisture content
while succulent roughages has a moisture content of above 60%. Roughages may be fed either in a
fresh, dried, or ensiled state. They also function to maintain and optimize the efficiency of the GI tract
for selected species.

Concentrate is a feed or feed mixture which contains less than 18% crude fibre and is usually low in
moisture, has high amounts of protein, carbohydrates and fat. Concentrates are categorized on the
following basis:
a) Energy-rich concentrates are feeds with high levels of energy but low in protein content e.g.
✓ Grains and seeds: best energy sources but generally expensive due to competition
with human.
✓ Agro-Industrial by-products: e.g. brans (maize, wheat, rice etc.), maize germ etc.
✓ Root crops e.g. beet roots etc.
b) Protein-rich concentrates are feeds with high levels of protein content but low in energy.
✓ Oilseed cakes which are by-products left after extraction of oil from oilseeds. The
protein and energy contents of these products vary widely depending on the method
of oil extraction used e.g. traditional/home extraction, expeller method or solvent-
extraction method.
✓ Brewer’s grain which are by-products of the brewery industry. Dried brewer’s grains
contain about 18% CP and 15% crude fiber. Unspecified amounts of this product is
produced from home brewing e.g. busaa brewing.

49
7.0 HOUSING FACILITIES

7.1 Introduction
Sheep and goat facilities differ according to the system of management and climatic conditions. In
modern production systems, where large flocks of sheep or goats are raised and managed, facilities to
handle sheep and goats are essential for efficient management.

7.2 Site Selection for a Sheep and Goat House

Factors to consider in site selection for a sheep and goat house are:
✓ Drainage: The area should be slightly sloped for effective drainage
✓ Wind direction: Animal houses should be partially or totally protected from the direction of
strong wind depending on the wind intensity of the area.
✓ Climatic factors: Such as temperature and rainfall
✓ Environmental factors Livestock housing should not be placed within 10 meters of springs,
rivers/streams or other water bodies.

In addition, having an appropriate design for sheep and goat housing (Figure 4) is crucial prior to
beginning construction. Housing design should be practical, cost saving, and protect the health of
both animals and people. Key design features and facilities include;
• Fences
• Handling pens
• Housing (house/barn – different kinds of buildings)
• Dipping vats/spraying area
• Isolation ward for sick animals
• Manure disposal pit (away from the house), and
• Equipment (feeding and watering troughs, etc.)

50
 Kids Does/ Buck
Hay
/ Ewes /
/Bar
Does Ram
n
Milking
parlour
Pen Pen

Feed
Ground trough
plan

Figure 7.1: Floor plan and cross-sectional view of a sheep or goat house

7.3 Characteristics of an Ideal Sheep and Goat House

A good goat house should be:
• Rain proof
• Damp proof
• Well ventilated
• Free from direct wind
• Free from sharp objects that might cut the goat
• Pest and wild animal proof
• Slats on floor for free fall of droppings
• With an area of at least 2 meters per animal

7.4 Housing Requirements for Sheep and Goats

The house has two main areas, the sleeping area and feeding area with adequate area (Table 5).
a) Sleeping area
✓ Wall right around - with a door
✓ It must be roofed
✓ Lots of air allowed in (well ventilated)
b) Feeding area
✓ Open not roofed, goats need some sun
✓ Fence right around with a door/gate
✓ Feed trough/water area

51
 ✓ Place for hanging fodder [feed racks]
✓ Floor with slats to let manure fall through - keeps feet and animals clean and dry
✓ Place to hang mineral block (placed where it cannot be rained on).

Table 5: Space requirements for sheep and goat housing.

Type of housing Space (m2/animal)
Breeding female Breeding Young Additional
male stock
Permanent confinement 1.2 2.0 0.8 Exercise yard, feed racks
(zero grazing) and watering trough
Night housing and day 0.8 1.5 0.5
time grazing

7.5 The Sheep and Goat house parts

a) Floor
✓ House should be raised 1.5 feet (or just below knee height) from the ground.
✓ The floor should be sloped, porous or slatted for water drainage. A minimum floor slope of
5% is recommended i.e. for every 1 m there should be a fall of 5 cm.
✓ A slatted wooden floor is very important. This has small gaps - about half an inch wide (or the
width of a side of a match box) between the planks or rafters
✓ Use of local materials means you can use off cut planks, etc.
✓ The floor racks made of rafters should be put where the goats feed and sleep, this stops foot
rot when it is wet, keeps the house clean and dry.
✓ The space requirement also varies with the size of animals, i.e., bigger animals require larger
space than smaller ones.
b) Feed Trough
✓ In the feeding area, built 1 metre (3 feet) above the platform
✓ Make with rafters, must be easy to clean troughs
✓ Floor of trough can be made of off cuts
✓ Must be able to hold hay
✓ Feeding rack for forage/fodder should be at least 1 m (3 feet) above the platform with a width
of 30 cm and a depth of 15 cm and approximately 30 - 40 cm per animal space is the minimum
c) Water Trough
✓ Be placed 1 foot above the floor in the feeding area

52
 ✓ Hang a 5 litre can on the door to the sleeping room
✓ The door should have a small window so that goats can have access to water - day and night

Note: Lactating animals have the highest water needs of any animal. On average,
✓ Goats consume 3-7 litre/animal/day and
✓ Sheep 3-5 litre/animal/day.

Any type of watering trough used should be easy to clean and ideally lifted off the floor to prevent
spillage and contamination with feed or fecal matter.
✓ Water troughs can be placed 1 foot above the floor in the feeding area, or
✓ Hung in a 5 liter tin on the door/wall
d) Kid Pen
✓ Toggenburg often give birth to twin kids so don’t make the pen small!
✓ Kid pen should be for at least 6 kids
✓ Be half the area for the 4 does. i.e. 4 m2.
e) Hay Barn/Store;
✓ A store adjacent to the goat house that is roofed to avoid hay being rained to store fodder, for
use during the dry season is recommended.
f) Mineral Trough
✓ Should be made where the goats sleep
✓ A one [1] foot square box is ideal for the purpose. A halved long ways plastic container nailed
to a board, at least 1 foot wide can be useful or hang the salt so the goat has to reach for it.

53
8.0 IDENTIFICATION AND MARKING
8.1 Introduction
Goat/sheep keepers on small-scale farms often know all their stock by sight. However, this is more
difficult with larger flocks or where flocks graze together. If grazed together, all animals belonging to
one owner could be marked in the same way so that they can be identified and sorted. This can help
to recover them if some are lost or stolen. Indirect ways of determining approximate age of sheep and
goats are vital in systems where production records are unavailable.

8.2 Methods of Identification

Identification of animals and recording is an important management tool in intensive production
systems. Identification of individual animal is important and required for:
✓ Genetic improvement (evaluating records for dam or sire selection)
✓ Provision of individual care
✓ Recording important events in the flock, such as vaccination dates, disease outbreaks, etc.

The methods commonly used for identification are: tattooing, ear tagging and ear marking or
notching. For farmers who do not have access to animal identification equipment a rope collar with
a washer having a number inscribed or punched on it can serve as an identification method. However,
problems occur when collars or numbers are lost.
1. Tattooing: Animals can be tattooed on any visible part of the body with the ear being the
most popular place. Skin damage could occur, reducing its value if done on other parts of the
body. The method involves use of tattoo pliers using tattoo numbers or letters that make a
series of pierced marks through the ear into which tattoo ink is rubbed.
2. Ear tagging: Attaching a tag to the ear enables easy identification of an animal throughout
its lifetime. An ear tag applicator and uniquely numbered ear tag are used. This can be very
useful for recording management and breeding activities.
3. Ear marking (Ear notching): This involves cutting notches out of the side of the ear in a
sequence. It can be done with a sharp knife or ear clipper. Generally, notches on the animal’s
left ear mean: 10 (top), 1 (bottom), 100 (end); and 1,000 (center hole). On the right ear notch
values are: 30 (top), 3 (bottom), 300 (end); and 3,000 (center hole).
Thus, a goat with the number 135 would look as follows:
• 1 notch on end of left ear (100);
• 1 notch on top of right ear (30),
• 2 notches on bottom of left ear (2);
• 1 notch on bottom of right ear (3) with a total value equaling 135

54
8.3 Age Determination of Sheep and Goats by Dentition
Both sheep and goats have a total of 32 teeth. They do not have any upper incisors. The dental formula
for sheep and goats is as follows:
Goat Deciduous Teeth Dental Formula: 2 (Di 0/4; Dc 0/0; Dp 3/3) = 20
Goat Permanent Teeth Dental Formula: 2 (I0/4; C0/0; P3/3; M3/3) = 32
A procedure called “toothing” is used to determine the age of a sheep or a goat. Age determination
is important in:
✓ Determination of flock structure
✓ Application of drugs also requires knowledge of age and/or weight of the animal.
A few days after birth, lambs/kids will have milk teeth (temporary incisors), arranged in four pairs in
the lower jaw which are replaced by larger permanent teeth as the age of the animal increases. There
is a range of ages at which particular teeth appear because the speed of teeth growth will vary according
to health and nutrition of sheep and goats.
✓ The central pair of temporary incisor teeth is shed and replaced by the permanent teeth at
approximately 14 months of age. At approximately 20 months, the second pair of milk teeth
is replaced by a pair of permanent incisors.
✓ At 3 and 4 years, the third and fourth pairs of permanent teeth appear. At 4 years of age the
sheep has a "full mouth." When a ewe/doe loses some of her incisor teeth, she is called a
"broken mouth."
✓ Older sheep and goats that have worn teeth have difficulty in eating and will lose condition,
become more prone to diseases and breed less than younger animals. Inspecting the teeth can
be a very useful way of deciding when to cull. In an attempt to improve the precision of age
determination, the following classes have been suggested (Table 6).
Table 6: Description of dentition with corresponding age estimates
Description Estimated age
Young without teeth often a new born New born
With erupted and growing 1st and 2nd pair of milk teeth 1–2 weeks
With erupted and growing 3rd pair of milk teeth 2–3 weeks
With erupted and growing 4th pair of milk teeth 3–4 weeks
With fully grown milk teeth that started to spread out 9 month
The milk teeth have started to wear down, or are fully spread out 12 months
With erupted and growing 1st pair of permanent teeth 14–17 month
With erupted and growing 2nd pair of permanent teeth 18–23 month
With erupted and growing 3rd pair of permanent teeth 24–36 month
With erupted and growing 4th pair of permanent teeth 3–5 years
The four pairs of permanent incisors have started to wear down 4 years
The permanent incisors have worn down and have started to spread out 5 years
Worn down incisors are spread out and few are lost (broken-mouth) 6 years
Most of the incisors have been lost (smooth-mouth) or worn down to the level 7 years
of dental pad

55
9.0 PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF SMALL RUMINANT
PRODUCTS
9.1 Introduction
Sheep and goats produce a number of products and by-products. Improvements made in the
productivity of sheep and goats through breeding and selection followed by proper nutrition and flock
health management practices should be harnessed for maximum productivity. Proper handling,
processing, and marketing of small ruminant products is very critical. Sheep and goat products (milk,
meat, skins, manure or live animals) are a source of income to many pastoralists and rural households.
Seasonal fluctuations in supply can be balanced through processing and storage; improve human
health; and increase the income earned by farmers from their sheep and goats is possible through
processing of these products in order to the value of the product. There are diseases which can be
transmitted from sheep and goats to humans through milk and meat. Farmers should be encouraged
to improve the way they handle products, to reduce the risk of disease to their own families and to
consumers. Sheep and goats produce a huge range of products and by-products which, if processed
at home, or by a group of farmers or pastoralists, can increase the owner's income. The products and
by-products include:
✓ Milk and milk derivatives
✓ Meat (mutton and chevon) and carcass products
✓ Butter
✓ Cheese
✓ Skins
✓ Fibre (wool and hair)
✓ Manure
9.2 Milk and Meat Production from Sheep and Goats

9.2.1 Sheep and Goat Milk

The milk has a pure white appearance when fresh. Goat milk is consumed in some parts of the country
while that from sheep is rarely used. The milk is composed of fat, protein, lactose, ash and water.
Sheep and goat products include liquid milk, powdered milk, cheese, yogurt, ghee and ice cream. As
much as 50% of goat milk production is made into cheese world-wide. Sheep and goats provide food
security, needed nutrition and can be an income source.

Non-dairy indigenous breeds of goats in the tropics produce milk yields of up to 0.5 litre/day while
exotic dairy goat breeds could give 2–4 litre/day. A good dairy ewe produces about 1 kg (1 liter) of
milk each day for about the first three months, and an outstanding ewe can produce 2–3 liters per day.
Typically, milk yield rises after lambing and reaches a maximum within one or two months. Thereafter,
milk yield slowly falls and drops. In both sheep and goats, milk production of goats is a function of
body size, weight, parity number, stage of lactation, udder size, litter size, nutrition, breed and kidding
season. In addition, the wide range of vegetation consumed by goats can sometimes lead to milk
tainted with a particular smell and flavour.

56
The collection, processing and marketing scale of milk depend on several factors:
✓ The supply of milk, including seasonal fluctuations in supply;
✓ The market demand for goat's milk and milk products;
✓ Transportation available for both collection and marketing;
✓ Potential profitability of collection, processing, and marketing;
✓ The technical capability of those involved.

9.2.2 Sheep and Goat Meat

In the tropics, most sheep and goats are either killed at home for use by the owner's family, friends,
and relatives, or sold alive at a livestock markets for subsequent slaughter. Being small in size, they are
easy to slaughter for home use, or conveniently slaughtered by a butcher for sale in the butchery during
the day. Virtually every part of the carcass is consumed or used in some way in most developing
countries. Few goats are slaughtered in recognized slaughterhouses, leading to underestimation of
their contribution to most nations' meat supply.

Raw blood is highly prized in some parts of Africa and the sheep’s and goat's head may be valued to
make a medicinal soup, common in East Africa. Goats are valued for the medicinal properties thought
to be possessed by different parts of the carcass in most countries. The basis of this belief is that goat's
consumption of a wide variety of plant species in its preferred diet.

Methods of slaughter may broadly be divided into three types.

a. Ritualistic or religious slaughter: this requires the sheep and goat to be conscious
at the time it is bled. Religious slaughter methods include Shechita by Jews, Halal by
Muslims and Jatka by Sikhs. The major blood vessels and the throat are severed by a
transverse cut in the shechita and halal slaughter methods.
b. Traditional slaughter: there are many traditional methods of slaughter which have
no religious connotations e.g. the Maasai pastoralists of East Africa value fresh blood
and will suffocate the sheep and goat by placing a hand over the mouth and nostrils,
while an assistant holds it down. This is a very slow death. After death the jugular vein
is slit open lengthways and a flap of skin pulled out to catch the blood, from where it
is drunk.
c. Humane slaughter means that the sheep and goat is unconscious at the time of
bleeding which is induced by mechanical instrument (captive bolt pistol that
traumatizes the brain so that the animal loses consciousness instantaneously) or
electrical means or use of carbon dioxide gas. The sheep/goat's death is painless.
Stunning is the practice of rendering animals unconscious just before slaughter. Proper

57
 stunning procedures reduce the chance of stained carcasses and blood splash. The
animal must be killed as soon as possible after stunning by bleeding.

If a captive bolt pistol is not available for humane slaughter, the following method of killing a sheep
or a goat is efficient and humane.
✓ Hold the sheep or goat securely. Stun it by a sharp blow to the centre of the forehead using a
small heavy instrument, such as a hammer.
✓ While the sheep or goat is still stunned, use a sharp knife to cut its throat from ear to ear,
making sure that the windpipe and blood vessels are severed.
✓ Allow the body to bleed. Although the goat is dead, nervous reflexes will cause its body to jerk
for a few minutes after death.
✓ When the body is quiet, it can be hung up by its hind legs and skinned, and the carcass cut in
the local manner.

In the absence of refrigeration, there are two other main methods of preserving meat:
✓ Air drying: strips of lean meat are cut and hung in the open air until thoroughly dried. The
resulting dried meat can be kept for several months in this way.
✓ Deep frying: several pastoral groups in Africa deep-fry meat until it is dry and crisp. Stored
in a sealed container, sheep’s and goat's meat preserved in this way has been reported to last
for several years.

9.3 Skins, Fibre and Manure Production from Sheep and Goats
For many countries in the tropics, the sale of semi-processed hides and skins forms a valuable,
sometimes major, source of foreign exchange. Several countries produce goat skins and products of
great value. Most tanning is still carried out by the country which imports the skin. European leather
ware manufacturers prize high-quality goat skin for the manufacture of gloves, shoes, and other
products. The main types of leather made from sheep’s and goats' skins are Glace, or glazed, kid
leather, Semi-chrome leather, Patent leather, Full-chrome suede garment, Full-chrome goat Nappa,
and Chamois leather. For the individual owners, the skins of sheep and goats slaughtered at home can
be used in countless ways for making clothes, bags, beds, thongs, and various containers. It is often
too useful at home to be sold.

Preservation prevents putrefaction and keeps skins in good condition until they are processed in
tanneries. The following points should be considered in undertaking skin preservation:
✓ Point of application of the treatment and how long preservation is required.
✓ Methods of application and any extra equipment and handling involved.
✓ The cost-effectiveness of the treatment for the required period of preservation.

58
 ✓ The effect of salt and other chemicals in causing pollution.

Curing is the first stage in the preservation of fresh skins. There are two simple methods of curing.
✓ • Air-drying: The wet skin can either be pegged out on the ground or tied to a frame and
dried upright. It is important to avoid any damage to the skin and to try not to spoil the edges
through clumsy pegging or tying. In climates that are not too humid, skins can be cured in
one-two days.
✓ • Salt curing: The fresh skin is cleaned of any blood or dirt, and washed with clean water. It
should be laid out with the inside facing upwards. About 40 per cent of its weight in salt is
then sprinkled on to it, until it is covered in an even layer. The salt will serve both to reduce
its moisture content and to prevent bacterial development. The skin can be folded with the
salted side inside and kept in this way for long periods before tanning.

Skin quality is affected by befects originating while the animals are alive are called ante-mortem defects
while those originating after the death of the animal are called postmortem defects (Table 7). While some
defects are common to all animals, some are specific to some species.
Table 7: Ante-mortem and postmortem defects
Ante-mortem defects Postmortem defects
a. Poor substance a. Defects occurring during slaughter and
b. Sore marks preservation
c. Barbed wire and thorn scratches i. Flaying defects
d. Rub marks ii. Hair slip and putrefaction
e. Goad marks and whip lashes b. Defects occurring during storage and
f. Bite marks from ticks, fleas, lice etc. transport
g. Scabies, mange, ringworm
h. Pox
i. Cockle
j. Scars
k. Diseases e.g. trypanosomiasis, streptothricosis,
sweating sickness, etc.
l. Injection punctures, shearing cuts
m. Dung damage
n. Natural characteristics of the skin

Postmortem defects
a. Defects occurring during slaughter and preservation
i. Flaying defects: A large number of skins contain defects due to careless and inefficient use of
the flaying knife. Cuts, holes and scores produced through faulty flaying greatly diminish the value
of skins.

59
ii. Hair slip and putrefaction: The main constituent of the skin is protein that is liable to bacterial
attack. The first sign of bacterial attack is hair slip, which leads to further putrefaction. If hair slip
is not checked in time, putrefaction starts, which can be from both the grain and flesh sides,
leading to the decomposition of the grain layer.

b. Defects occurring during storage and transport

Storage conditions are as important as proper preparation and preservation. A good percentage of
skins are damaged during storage and transportation, especially during the rainy season. Problems that
occur in rural drying sheds are the major source of damage and loss of skins. Rural drying sheds are
highly infested with skin damaging insects, have leaky roofs, and do not use slatted platforms. Skins
become damaged and many are totally rejected. While the main portion of insect damage happens in
rural drying sheds, insect damage also occurs in tanneries and warehouses of large traders.

The defects should be avoided or minimized by taking appropriate measures.

✓ Diseases: proper, timely treatments, spraying or dipping with required acaricides.
✓ Timely vaccinations.
✓ Avoid external injuries to the skin.

Wool, Mohair and Cashmere

The breed, system of production and harvest of wool/hair is crucial in the production of quality
hair/wool. The amount sheared is determined by breed. The hair/wool produced can be sold as a raw
material to factories, handicraft cooperatives and/or individuals. Locally produced coarse wool could
be used to make blankets, carpets and local dress.

Goats produce several types of hair fibre, depending on their breed and to some extent on their
environment. There are three main types.
• Mohair is the hair of the Angora goat. The Angora produces fair-coloured long hair in either waves
or ringlets, 12-18 cm long. Mohair is used to make fine cloth, carpets, and other products.
Cashmere (Pashmina): many breeds of goat produce the very fine soft cashmere undercoat that is
so highly valued internationally. There are no specific cashmere goat breeds
Common goat hair: many breeds of goat are naturally hairy, with long coarse hair, which can be
clipped and used. For example, Tauran goat keepers in northern Iran clip their goats and use the hair
to weave coarse cloth for making tents. Skins of goats with long hair are often used to make warm
clothes.

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Sheep and Goat Manure
Sheep and goat manure is a valuable product and in some areas and may be traded and given a cash
value. The quantity and quality of manure depends on the quantity and quality of the diet consumed.
As a rough guide, a goat is likely to produce 1-2 per cent of its weight as dry matter (DM) of manure
per day. Therefore, a 30 kg goat might produce 300-600 g DM manure per day, depending on the feed
intake and digestibility of the diet. Their manure plays an important role in integrated farming systems
(Figure 9.1).

Sheep
Goat
Cattle

Figure 9.1: Role of manure in integrated farming systems

9.4 Marketing of Sheep and Goats and their Products

Sheep and goat markets can be classified as primary, distributive and terminal depending on the
purpose of animal buyers. Majority of sheep and goat products are either consumed at home or are
traded in villages, or perhaps in centralized market centres. Therefore, careful consideration must be
given before any interventions are made to improve the marketing of their products. Farmers and
pastoralists are in a weak market bargaining position when due to circumstances beyond their control
e.g. drought, they are forced to sell their sheep and goats at very low prices. The market is also
populated by middlemen who eat in to their profit margin.

Types of marketing interventions

Collection of goats or goat products: may be from the farm itself or from some central collection
point, to which farmers bring their products.
Processing products: include pasteurizing milk, making cheese, making butter, slaughtering goats,
and sorting fibres.

61
Grading products: important in fibre and wool production, or for the sale of live sheep and goats,
particularly for export.
Packing products: for easier transportation, for example baling mohair fleeces, or for the final
consumer, such as packing cheese or butter for retail sale.
Promotion of new products: if a new product has been made e.g. sheep’s or goat's milk yoghurt, it
may need to be advertised and promoted in some way.
Transporting goats or products: transporting sheep/goats or sheep/goat products is costly.
Sheep/goats or their products can collected together and transported to a more distant market where
prices are higher; and if they are sold on a contract to a slaughterhouse or butcher's shop, or other
retail outlet.
Selling goats or products: producers who group together in some way will have more bargaining
power with buyers than if they negotiate separately. If they can offer a reasonable price and a regular
supply, they can probably negotiate a good contract with the buyer.

The market intervention functions might be performed by the following organizations

Producers' groups, associations, and cooperatives: groups of farmers might get together and form
an informal (or more formal) group, in order to improve the marketing of their sheep/goats and/or
products.
Private companies may make a contract with producers to buy a product at an agreed price, quality,
and frequency. This arrangement can be beneficial to both parties.
Government organizations: an existing government marketing organization, such as one dealing in
milk, might agree to help with the marketing of goats' milk. Alternatively a government might decide
that goats are important enough to need their own marketing organization.
Non-governmental organizations might help to set up a producers' marketing organization.

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10.0 PRACTICALS: ROUTINE AND FLOCK HEALTH
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

10.1 Introduction
Routine management practices refers to certain management operations are performed on sheep and
goats for effective production of the herd or the individual animal itself e.g. castration, docking, hoof
trimming, dehorning, shearing, clutching etc. in addition, application of the best management practices,
assist in the reduction of diseases in the flock. Various equipment are used to carry out these practices
and includes, weighing scale, burdizzo, tattoing machine, feeders, elastrator, ear tag forcep etc. These
equipment are used in management operations such as castration, docking, disbudding, hoof trimming,
deworming and drenching.

10.2 Routine Management Practices

10.2.1 Castration
Castration is the destruction or removal of the testes, epididymis, and a part of the spermatic cord
from a male animal, e.g. ram, buck. It is an act of rendering an animal sexually inactive or
unreproductive. In most cases, non-breeding males and males not slaughtered at a young age need to
be castrated. Castration is done to control mating by preventing inbreeding and inferior males from
breeding, or for production of fattened carcass. Ideally, castration should be done at less than 3 weeks
of age. Castration has the following advantages.
➢ It prevents inbreeding
➢ It prevents unwanted pregnancies
➢ It assures the safety of handlers, producers, and other animals
➢ It reduces the taint odour or ‘goaty’ smell in the meat of male animals.
➢ It improves weight development and carcass quality

10.2.2 Tail Docking

Not a common practice in pastoralists except in some parts of the country and is normally done for
ewe lambs only. It is important to note that a sheep’s tail has a purpose of protecting the sheep's anus,
vulva, and udder from weather extremes. Because of this, care should be taken while docking. Tails
must be left long enough to cover the ewe's vulva and the ram's anus. Docking may be performed by
using elastrator rings, Burdizzo or a knife.

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10.3 Flock Health Management Practices
Implementation of health management practices help protect animals from diseases on a day-to-day
basis. Because the animal is in overall good health, they help animals fight off or survive other health
challenges (drought, disease outbreaks) over the long-term. Health protecting good management
practices include housing, feeding, drenching and spraying, hoof trimming, disease prevention
program like vaccination amongst others routine management practices. Table 10.1 provides a
summary of the common characteristics of sick and healthy sheep and goats.
Table 10.1: Characteristics of healthy and sick sheep and goats
Healthy Sick
A healthy sheep/goat: A sick/unhealthy sheep or goat:
has a good appetite. has reduced appetite
appears bright, alert and responsive when has breathing that is too fast or too slow
playing and climbing. sits or lies separated from the flock/herd
stays with the flock. has an ill-appearance with a dull, matted coat,
has smooth, clean and shiny coat. hunched-up stance and tail and ears that droop
has clear eyes with some pink color in the down
eyelids. has a dry nose or has discharge from the nose,
eyes, and/or mouth
has an erect tail and a moist nose
Unhealthy lambs/kids are:
Healthy lambs/kids:
Often unwilling to move or feed.
are active and alert, and breathe normally
appear weak, cold, lazy and hunched up
They are up on their feet in 30–60 minutes
After birth, move freely and feed often

In general, it is good practice to do the following in flock health management:

1. Maintain environmental sanitation especially in pens
2. Adopt good internal and external parasites control measures.
3. Observe the flock closely early in the morning and at other times for early detection of sick
animals.
4. Isolate sick animal and seek prompt veterinary attention for diagnosis and treatment.
5. Keep proper health records and have animals that died autopsied.
6. Keep newly purchased animal under for 30 days if possible before introduction into the main
flock
7. Provide mineral salt licks and clean water in pens always.
8. Ensure that animals are receiving adequate and balanced ration.
9. Where pastures have been established rotational system of grazing between paddocks should
be enforced to avoid buildup of parasites on pastures.
10. Trim hooves and horns when necessary.

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10.4 Sheep and Goats Body Condition Scoring
Body parts (the lumbar region, the rib cage and the sternum) are used in body condition scoring. The
term body condition refers to the body fat content of an animal while condition scoring is a system
of describing or classifying animals by differences in relative body fatness. Condition scoring is a
subjective scoring system but provides a fairly reliable assessment of body composition. As a matter
of concern, producers should be concerned with the body condition of their breeding animals as
knowledge of the various parts of sheep and goats is important for different management purposes
e.g. ewes should not be allowed to become too thin or too fat. Too thin ewes will result to failure in
reproduction, low twinning rates and low weaning rates. On the other hand, over fat ewes can suffer
pregnancy toxemia, but fat ewes are rarely a problem. At the time of mating body condition has an
important influence on the number of lambs and kids born and on the proportion of barren
ewes/does. It can also play an important role in sheep and goat marketing. Changes in body condition
are inevitable with large fluctuations in feed supply though there are circumstances where body weight
per se does not reflect an animal’s condition,
Body condition score (BCS) is a standard way of assessing the condition of individual goats on a scale
of 1–5, where 1 is very thin and 5 is obese (Figure 10.1). It is a way of telling whether your goats are
getting too little feed or too much. You assess three different things: Backbone; Rib cage and Loin
eye area (either side of the backbone above the tail). It is important that the animals are touched and
felt in order to assign BCS.

Figure 10.1: Body condition scoring criteria

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A condition score of 3 for the doe is usually ideal at weaning, breeding and kidding (Figure 10.2).

Figure 10.2: Body condition score of 3.

10.5 Weight measurements

They can be estimated using linear body measurements under field conditions where scales are not
available. Chest girth, wither height, and body length are the most commonly used measurements,
measured to the nearest centimeter. Chest girth can be measured using a special girth tape. Chest
girth or circumference (heart girth) is measured just behind the front legs. Wither height is the
highest point measured as the vertical distance from the ground to the shoulder tip which is best
measured with a special measuring stick made with two arms, one which is held vertically and the
other at right angles to it and sliding along it (firmly not loosely) but can also be measured with a tape.
Body length is measured from ‘base of tail’ (where it joins the body) to the first thoracic vertebrate
or to the front of chest. Of the three linear body measurements, chest girth is the easiest to measure
and also the least variable.

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11.0 PRACTICAL: SHEARING AND WOOL FAULTS
11.1 Introduction
The major wool and dual purpose sheep breeds include: Merino; Corriedale; Hampshire Down;
Romney Marsh and crosses of these breeds with local stock. The wool sheep are reared mainly in the
cool high rainfall areas. Wool faults are defects that lower the value for manufacturing purposes; they
can be grouped roughly into four types:
• Faults due to age, genetics, and inherited defects - These are faults that can most often be
controlled by genetic selection; however, improvements made here can be slow and require
careful selection of breeding stock.
• Faults due to the environment - Some of these are often beyond the control of the wool
producer.
• Faults due to poor management - The wool grower often has the most control over these
faults.
• Faults caused by infectious agents and insects.

11.2 Sheep Shearing Procedure

Shearing is the process by which the woollen fleece of a sheep is cut off. The person who removes
the sheep's wool is called a shearer. Typically each adult sheep is shorn once each year (a sheep may
be said to have been "shorn" or "sheared", depending upon dialect).

Clutching is a quick modification of shearing where the wool in the vulva area and around the udder
is removed. It creates a cleaner lambing environment and helps to prevent lambs from latching onto
a tag or piece of wool instead of a nipple.

Typical mass shearing of sheep today follows a well-defined workflow:

• remove the wool
• throw the fleece onto the wool table
• skirt, roll and class the fleece
• place it in the appropriate wool bin
• press and store the wool until it is transported.

11.3 Factors that Determine the Value of Wool

The name "marginal" implies wool of questionable quality for restricted utilization or processing.
These are wools that could have one or more of the following faults or problems:
1. Colored fiber contamination
2. Excessive vegetable matter contamination

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3. Branding paint stains
4. Tender or "hunger-fine" fibers
5. Chemical contaminants
6. Heavy urine and fecal stains
7. Mixed fiber types present, i.e. kemp and medullated fibers. Many other types of wools with
obvious negative faults would be considered in this category.
Generally, these marginal wools have limited use outside of the normal processes. In recent years,
some research and development has been undertaken to investigate possible market uses for so called
marginal wools.

The Following Factors Determine the Value of Wool:

a) Grade:
1. The finer the fleece the more value.
b) Yield:
1. Dirt - The more dirt, the lower the yield.
2. Grease - The more yolk (oil + suint [sweat + salts]) the fleece contains, the lower the yield and
the lower the value.
3. Length - The longer the length of staple, the higher the yield and value (if fiber diameter is less
than 22.9 microns).
4. Moisture - The more water, the lower the yield.
5. Vegetable matter (VM) - The more plant material contaminants (i.e. burrs, straw, seeds, etc.),
the lower the yield.
c) Purity:
1. Colored fibers - Any colored fibers reduce purity.
2. Medullated fibers - Any medullated (has a core), hair-like, kemp, and heterotype fibers impact
purity negatively.
d) Uniformity:
1. The more uniform the fiber diameter and staple length of the fleece, the higher the value.
e) Soundness or Strength:
1. Wool with "breaks" or evidence of "tender" and "hunger-fine" fibers are of less value. The
strength of the fiber is affected by the environment in which it is produced, i.e. nutrition,
disease, parasites, weather, etc.
f) Character:

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 This refers to the brightness and attractiveness of the wool. The character is determined by the
following subjectively evaluated criteria:
a. Handle (tactile property)
b. Color (the more whiteness, the better)
c. Crimp (the degree of fiber waviness or crimps/inch; the more crimps/inch the finer
the fiber.)

11.4 Wool Faults

Wool faults are defects that lower the value for manufacturing purposes e.g. Figure 8 shows inherited
or environmental factors that affect wool quality.

Figure 11.1: Inherited or Environmental Factors That Affect Wool Quality

Wool faults can be grouped roughly into four types:
a) Faults due to age, genetics, and inherited defects: These are faults that can most often be
controlled by genetic selection; however, improvements made here can be slow and require
careful selection of breeding stock.

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b) Faults due to the environment: Some of these are often beyond the control of the wool
producer.
c) Faults due to poor management: The wool grower often has the most control over these
faults.
d) Faults caused by infectious agents and insects.

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