Module-III

Access Control
Access control- is a method of limiting access to a system or to physical or virtual resources. It is a process by
which users can access and are granted certain prerogative to systems, resources or information.
Access control is a security technique that has control over who can view different aspects, what can be
viewed and who can use resources in a computing environment. It is a fundamental concept in security that
reduces risk to the business or organization.
To establish a secure system, electronic access control systems are used that depend on user credentials,
access card readers, auditing and reports to track employee access to restricted business locations and areas.
These systems include access control panels to prohibit entry to sensitive areas like alarms and lock down
areas to prevent unauthorized access or operations. Access control systems perform identification,
authentication, and authorization of users and entities by evaluating required login credentials that may
include passwords, pins, bio-metric scans or other authentication factors. There is multi-factor
authentication which requires two or more authentication factors which is often an important part of the
layered defence to protect access control systems.
Authentication Factors:
 Password or PIN
 Bio-metric measurement (fingerprint & retina scan)
 Card or Key
Authentication Mechanism:
1. Two-factor authentication
2. Multi factor authentication
3. one-time password
4. Three-factor authentication
5. Bio metrics
6. Hard Tokens
7. Soft Tokens
8. Contextual Authentication
9. Device identification
Basically access control is of 2 types:
1. Physical Access Control: Physical access control restricts entry to campuses, buildings, rooms and
physical IT assets.
2. Logical Access Control: Logical access control limits connections to computer networks, system files
and data.

Multiple Access Protocols

If there is a dedicated link between the sender and the receiver then data link control layer is sufficient,
however if there is no dedicated link present then multiple stations can access the channel simultaneously.
Hence multiple access protocols are required to decrease collision and avoid crosstalk.
For example, in a classroom full of students, when a teacher asks a question and all the students (or
stations) start answering simultaneously (send data at same time) then a lot of chaos is created( data
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overlap or data lost) then it is the job of the teacher (multiple access protocols) to manage the students
and make them answer one at a time.

Random Access Protocol

In this protocol, all the station has the equal priority to send the data over a channel. In random
access protocol, one or more stations cannot depend on another station nor any station control
another station. Depending on the channel's state (idle or busy), each station transmits the data
frame. However, if more than one station sends the data over a channel, there may be a
collision or data conflict. Due to the collision, the data frame packets may be lost or changed.
And hence, it does not receive by the receiver end.

Following are the different methods of random-access protocols for broadcasting frames on the
channel.

o Aloha
o CSMA
o CSMA/CD
o CSMA/CA

1. ALOHA Random Access Protocol

It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used in a shared medium
to transmit data. Using this method, any station can transmit data across a network
simultaneously when a data frameset is available for transmission.

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Aloha Rules

1. Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time.

2. It does not require any carrier sensing.
3. Collision and data frames may be lost during the transmission of
data through multiple stations.
4. Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha. Hence, there
is no collision detection.
5. It requires retransmission of data after some random amount of time.

Pure Aloha

Whenever data is available for sending over a channel at stations, we use Pure
Aloha.

In pure Aloha, when each station transmits data to a channel without checking
whether the channel is idle or not, the chances of collision may occur, and the
data frame can be lost.

When any station transmits the data frame to a channel, the pure Aloha waits
for the receiver's acknowledgment. If it does not acknowledge the receiver end
within the specified time, the station waits for a random amount of time, called
the backoff time (Tb).
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 And the station may assume the frame has been lost or destroyed. Therefore, it
retransmits the frame until all the data are successfully transmitted to the
receiver.

In the figure above, there are four stations for accessing a shared channel and
transmitting data frames. Some frames collide because most stations send their
frames at the same time. Only two frames, frame
1.1 and frame 2.2, are successfully transmitted to the receiver end. At the same
time, other frames are lost or destroyed. Whenever two frames fall on a shared
channel simultaneously, collisions can occur, and both will suffer damage. If the
new frame's first bit enters the channel before finishing the last bit of the
second frame. Both frames are completely finished, and both stations must
retransmit the data frame.

Slotted Aloha

The slotted Aloha is designed to overcome the pure Aloha's efficiency because
pure Aloha has a very high possibility of frame hitting.

In slotted Aloha, the shared channel is divided into a fixed time interval called
slots.

So that, if a station wants to send a frame to a shared channel, the frame can
only be sent at the beginning of the slot, and only one frame is allowed to be
sent to each slot.

And if the stations are unable to send data to the beginning of the slot, the
station will have to wait until the beginning of the slot for the next time.

However, the possibility of a collision remains when trying to send a frame at

the beginning of two or more station time slot.

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 2. CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to sense

the traffic on a channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data. It means
that if the channel is idle, the station can send data to the channel. Otherwise, it
must wait until the channel becomes idle. Hence, it reduces the chances of a
collision on a transmission medium.

CSMA Access Modes

1-Persistent: In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines each node, first
sense the shared channel and if the channel is idle, it immediately sends the
data. Else it must wait and keep track of the status of the channel to be idle and
broadcast the frame unconditionally as soon as the channel is idle.

Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that defines before transmitting

the data, each node must sense the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it
immediately sends the data. Otherwise, the station must wait for a random
time (not continuously), and when the channel is found to be idle, it transmits
the frames.

P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non-persistent modes.

The P-Persistent mode defines that each node senses the channel, and if the
channel is inactive, it sends a frame with a P probability. If the data is not

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 transmitted, it waits for a (q = 1-p probability) random time and resumes the
frame with the next time slot.

O- Persistent: It is an O-persistent method that defines the superiority of the

station before the transmission of the frame on the shared channel. If it is
found that the channel is inactive, each station waits for its turn to retransmit
the data.

3. CSMA/ CD (carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection)

It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection network protocol to transmit data
frames.

Mainly used in Ethernet LAN

The CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control layer.

It first senses the shared channel before broadcasting the frames, and if the channel is
idle, it transmits a frame to check whether the transmission was successful.

If the frame is successfully received, the station sends another frame. If any collision is
detected in the CSMA/CD, the station sends a jam/ stop signal to the shared channel to
terminate data transmission. After that, it waits for a random time before sending a frame
to a channel.

If any collision is detected, the station sends a jam/ stop signal to the shared channel to
terminate transmission.

Contention free protocols: Bit – map Protocol

In bit map protocol, the contention period is divided into N slots, where N is the total number
of stations sharing the channel. If a station has a frame to send, it sets the corresponding bit
in the slot. So, before transmission, each station knows whether the other stations want to

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transmit. Collisions are avoided by mutual agreement among the contending stations on who
gets the channel.

4. CSMA/ CA (carrier sense multiple access/ Collision Avoidance)

It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol for carrier

transmission of data frames.

It is a protocol that works with a medium access control layer.

When a data frame is sent to a channel, it receives an acknowledgment to check whether the
channel is clear. If the station receives only a single (own) acknowledgments, that means the
data frame has been successfully transmitted to the receiver. But if it gets two signals (its own
and one more in which the collision of frames), a collision of the frame occurs in the shared
channel. Detects the collision of the frame when a sender receives an acknowledgment
signal.

To avoid collision

Interframe space: In this method, the station waits for the channel to become idle, and if it

gets the channel is idle, it does not immediately send the data. Instead of this, it waits for
some time, and this time period is called the Interframe space or IFS. However, the IFS time is
often used to define the priority of the station.

Contention window: In the Contention window, the total time is divided into different slots.
When the station/ sender is ready to transmit the data frame, it chooses a random slot
number of slots as wait time. If the channel is still busy, it does not restart the entire process,
except that it restarts the timer only to send data packets when the channel is inactive.

Acknowledgment: In the acknowledgment method, the sender station sends the data frame
to the shared channel if the acknowledgment is not received ahead of time.

Controlled Access Protocol

It is a method of reducing data frame collision on a shared channel. In the controlled access
method, each station interacts and decides to send a data frame by a particular station
approved by all other stations. It means that a single station cannot send the data frames
unless all other stations are not approved. It has three types of controlled
access: Reservation, Token Passing.

LAN Transmission Equipment

Networking devices

Mainly used for establishing connection and communication.

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Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the software.
Some important network components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and modem.
Depending on the type of network that we need to install, some network components can
also be removed. For example, the wireless network does not require a cable.

Following are the major components required to install a network:

1. NIC (Network Interface Card)

o NIC stands for network interface card.

o NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer
onto a network
o Used for both wired and wireless connections
o The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is
assigned by the IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is stored in
the PROM (Programmable read-only memory).
o Also known as network interface controller, ethernet card, network adapter, LAN
adapter

There are two types of NIC:

1. Wired NIC
2. Wireless NIC

Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors are used
with wired NIC to transfer data.

Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the
wireless network. For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.

Functions of the Network Interface Card

1. NIC is used to convert data into a digital signal.

2. In the OSI model, NIC uses the physical layer to transmit signals and the network layer
to transmit data packets.
3. NIC offers both wired (using cables) and wireless (using Wi-Fi) data communication
techniques.
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 4. NIC is a middleware between a computer/server and a data network.
5. NIC operates on both physical as well as the data link layer of the OSI model.

Components of Network Interface Card

Network Interface Card contains the following essential components -

1. Memory

Memory is one of the most important components of the NIC. It is used to store the data
during communication.

2. Connectors

connectors are used to connect the cables to the Ethernet port.

3. Processor

Processor is used for converting the data message into a suitable form of communication.

4. Jumpers

Jumpers are the small device that is used to control the communication operations without

the need of any software. It is also used to determine settings for the interrupt request line,
I/O address, upper memory block, and type of transceiver.

5. Routers

To provide wireless connectivity, routers are used.

6. MAC address

MAC address is also referred to as a physical network address. It is a unique address that is
present to the network interface card where ethernet packets are communicated with the
computer.

2. Hub

A hub is a common connection point, also known as a network hub, which is used for
connection of devices in a network.

It works as a central connection for all the devices that are connected through a hub.

The hub has numerous ports. If a packet reaches at one port, it is able to see by all the
segments of the network due to a packet is copied to the other ports.

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A network hub has no routing tables or intelligence (unlike a network switch or router),
which is used to send information and broadcast all network data across each and every
connection.

Although most of the hubs can recognize network troubles or errors like collisions,
broadcasting all information to the several ports can be a security risk and cause bottlenecks.
The network hubs were popular in the past time as they were cheaper as compared to a
switch or router. Nowadays, switches are much cheaper than a hub and provide a better
solution for any network. Furthermore, a hub is no IP address, as it is a dumb device.

Types of Hub

There are three types of the hub that are given below:

Passive Hub: The passive hubs are the connection point for wires that helps to make the
physical network. It is capable of determining the bugs and faulty hardware. Simply, it accepts
the packet over a port and circulates it to all ports. This connector is connected to all
LAN devices.

Active Hub: As compared to a passive hub, it includes some additional features. It is able to
monitor the data sent to the connected devices. It plays an important role between the
connected devices with the help of store technology, where it checks the data to be sent and
decides which packet to send first.

Intelligent Hub: It is a little smarter than passive and active hubs. These hubs have some
kinds of management software that help to analyse the problem in the network and resolve
them. It is beneficial to expend the business in networking; the management can assign users
that help to work more quickly and share a common pool efficiently by using intelligent hubs.
However, it offers better performance for the local area network. Furthermore, with any
physical device, if any problem is detected, it is able to detect this problem easily.

Advantages of Hub
o It provides support for different types of Network Media.
o It can be used by anyone as it is very cheap.
o It can easily connect many different media types.
o The use of a hub does not impact on the network performance.
o Additionally, it can expand the total distance of the network.

Disadvantages of Hub
o It has no ability to choose the best path of the network.
o It does not include mechanisms such as collision detection.
o It does not operate in full-duplex mode and cannot be divided into the Segment.
o It cannot reduce the network traffic as it has no mechanism.

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 o It is not able to filter the information as it transmits packets to all the
connected segments.
o Furthermore, it is not capable of connecting various network architectures
like a ring, token, and ethernet, and more.

3. Repeater

Repeaters are defined as a networking device that is used to amplify and generate the
incoming signal.
Repeaters work at the physical layer of the OSI model.

The main aim of using a repeater is to increase the networking distance by increasing the
strength and quality of signals.
Using repeaters helps to reduce error, and loss of data and provides with delivery of data at
specified locations only. The major advantage of using a repeater is that it provides with
transfer of data with more security and over a long distance.
4. Bridge

A bridge in a computer network is a device used to connect multiple LANs

together with a larger Local Area Network (LAN).

The mechanism of network aggregation is known as bridging. The bridge

is a physical or hardware device but operates at the OSI model’s data link
layer and is also known as a layer of two switches.

Basically, a bridge in computer networks is used to divide network connections

into sections, now each section has separate bandwidth and a separate
collision domain. Here bridge is used to improve network performance.

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Types of Bridges:

There are three types of bridges in computer networks, which are as follows:

1. Transparent bridge
2. Source routing bridge
3. Translational bridge

1. Transparent Bridge:

Transparent bridges are invisible to other devices on the network. This bridge
doesn’t reconfigure the network on the addition or deletion of any station.
The prime function of the transparent bridge is to block or forward the data
according to the MAC address.

2. Source Routing Bridge:

Source routing bridges were developed and designed specifically for token ring
networks. The frame’s entire route is embedded with the data frames by
the source station to perform the routing operation so that once the frame
is forwarded it must follow a specific defined path/route.

3. Translational Bridge:

Translational bridges convert the received data from one networking system to
another. Or it is used to communicate or transmit data between two
different types of networking systems. Like if we are sending data from a
token ring to an Ethernet cable, the translational cable will be used to
connect both the networking system and transmit data.
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Advantages of Bridge:

 Bridges can be used as a network extension like they can connect two
network topologies together.
 It has a separate collision domain, which results in increased bandwidth.
 It can create a buffer when different MAC protocols are there for different
segments.
 Highly reliable and maintainable. The network can be divided into multiple
LAN segments.
 Simple installation, no requirement of any extra hardware or software
except the bridge itself.
 Protocol transparency is higher as compared to other protocols.

 storms can be formed.

Functions of Bridges in the Network

 The bridge is used to divide LANs into multiple segments.

 To control the traffic in the network.
 It can interconnect two LANs with a similar protocol.
 It can filter the data based on destination/MAC address.

5. Switch

Switches are the connectivity points of an Ethernet network. These are

small devices that can receive data from multiple input ports and send it to
the specific output port that takes data to its intended destination in the
network.

Types of switches

1. Unmanaged switches: These are the switches that are mostly

used in home networks and small businesses as they plug in
and instantly start doing their job and such switches do not need to
be watched or configured. These require only small cable
connections. It allows devices on a network to connect with each
other such as a computer to a computer or a computer to a printer in
one location. They are the least expensive switches among all

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 categories.
2. Managed switches: These types of switches have many features
like the highest levels of security, precision control, and full
management of the network. These are used in organizations
containing a large network and can be customized to
enhance the functionality of a certain network. These are the
most costly option but their scalability makes them an ideal option
for a network that is growing. They are achieved by setting a simple
network management protocol(SNMP).
3. LAN switches: These are also known as Ethernet switches or
data switches and are used to reduce network congestion or
bottleneck by distributing a package of data only to its intended
recipient. These are used to connect points on a LAN.
4. PoE switches ((power over Ethernet)): PoE switches are used in
PoE technology which stands for power over Ethernet that is a
technology that integrates data and power on the same cable
allowing power devices to receive data in parallel to power. Thus
these switches provide greater flexibility by simplifying the cabling
process.

Advantages:

1. Simple to install and operate.

2. Inexpensive

Disadvantages:

1. Lack of control over network traffic.

2. Limited security and performance.

6. Routers

Routers are networking devices operating at layer 3 or a network layer of the OSI model.
They are responsible for receiving, analysing, and forwarding data packets among the
connected computer networks.
When a data packet arrives, the router inspects the destination address, consults its
routing tables to decide the optimal route and then transfers the packet along this
route.
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Features of Routers
 A router is a layer 3 or network layer device.
 It connects different networks together and sends data packets from one network to
another.
 A router can be used both in LANs (Local Area Networks) and WANs (Wide Area
Networks).
 It transfers data in the form of IP packets. In order to transmit data, it uses IP address
mentioned in the destination field of the IP packet.
 Routers have a routing table in it that is refreshed periodically according to the
changes in the network. In order to transmit data packets, it consults the table and
uses a routing protocol.
 In order to prepare or refresh the routing table, routers share information among
each other.
 Routers provide protection
 Routers are more expensive than other networking devices like hubs, bridges, and
switches.

Routing Table
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The functioning of a router depends largely upon the routing table stored in it. The
routing table stores the available routes for all destinations. The router consults the
routing table to determine the optimal route through which the data packets can be
sent.
A routing table typically contains the following entities −
 IP addresses and subnet mask of the nodes in the network
 IP addresses of the routers in the network
 Interface information among the network devices and channels

Routing tables are of two types −

 Static Routing Table − Here, the routes are fed manually and are not refreshed
automatically. It is suitable for small networks containing 2-3 routers.
 Dynamic Routing Table − Here, the router communicates with other routers using
routing protocols to determine the available routes. It is suited for larger networks
having large number of routers.

Types of Routers
 Wireless Router − They provide WiFi connection WiFi devices like laptops,
smartphones etc. They can also provide standard Ethernet routing. For indoor
connections, the range is 150 feet while its 300 feet for outdoor connections.
 Broadband Routers − They are used to connect to the Internet through telephone and
to use voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) technology for providing high-speed
Internet access. They are configured and provided by the Internet Service Provider
(ISP).
 Core Routers − They can route data packets within a given network, but cannot route
the packets between the networks. They helps to link all devices within a network
thus forming the backbone of network. It is used by ISP and communication
interfaces.
 Edge Routers − They are low-capacity routers placed at the periphery of the networks.
They connect the internal network to the external networks, and are suitable for
transferring data packets across networks. They use Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
for connectivity. There are two types of edge routers, subscriber edge routers and
label edge routers.
 Brouters − Brouters are specialised routers that can provide the
functionalities of bridges as well. Like a bridge, brouters help to transfer data

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 between networks. And like a router, they route the data within the devices
of a network.

7. Gateway

A device that can bridge several network structure is called a gateway.

Gateways can link two dissimilar LANs. The major difference between gateways and routers
is that routers operate at the OSI model’s network layer. In contrast, gateways operate from
the lowest to the topmost layer, i.e., the application layer to the OSI model’s network layer.

Gateways and routers are used correspondently. It can change data packets from one
protocol structure to another before forwarding them to connect two different networks.
Hence it incorporates a protocol conversion function at the application layer.

A gateway is a connecting device that can relate to multiple networks. They perform at the
application layer of the OSI model. They manage messages, locations, and protocol
conversion to deliver a packet to its terminal between two connections.

The main disadvantage of the gateway is that gateways are slow

Characteristics of Gateways
 It can support complete protocol transformation from one computer network
technology to other technology. It means ethernet to token ring or some different
model or protocol instead of encapsulation.
 It needs higher layers of the OSI model, possible by layer 7, the application layer.

 Unlike bridges and routers, gateways work due to protocol conversion.

Ethernet

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Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and is defined under IEEE standards
802.3.

The reason behind its wide usability is that Ethernet is easy to understand, implement, and
maintain, and allows low-cost network implementation.

Ethernet offers flexibility in terms of the topologies that are allowed. Ethernet generally
uses a bus & star topology.

Ethernet operates in two layers of the OSI model, the physical layer (ethernet technology)
and the data link layer (ethernet protocol).

For Ethernet, the protocol data unit is a frame since we mainly deal with DLLs.

In order to handle collisions, the Access control mechanism used in Ethernet is CSMA/CD.

Ethernet Frame Format

IEEE 802.3 specifies only one type of frame format that includes seven fields. These fields are
as follows−

 Preamble − It contains seven bytes (56 bits) and is used for synchronization.
 Start frame delimiter (SFD) − It is a one-byte field and is used to signal the frame's
beginning.
 Destination Address and Source Address fields are six bytes' fields containing sender
and receiver address as declared by the Network Interface Card.
 The next field length/type is a two-byte field and indicates the number of PDU bits
and its type. It provides a base for other protocols.
 The PDU or 802.2 frames contain the entire 802.2 frames as a modular removable
unit. It can start from the 46th byte and can continue up to the 1500th byte.
 The last field is CRC, which contains error detection information.

The frame format is :

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 Evolution of Ethernet

Ethernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs. It was first
standardized in 1980s as IEEE 802.3 standard. Ethernet is classified into two categories:
classic Ethernet and switched Ethernet.

1. Classic Ethernet

Classic Ethernet is the original form of Ethernet , developed in 1980.

It provides data rates between 3 to 10 Mbps.

Hub is used to connect stations. Simple structure.

Coverage limit is < 10 km.

It performs broadcasting , not secure, so collisions may occur.

Varieties of Classic Ethernet

The common varieties of classic Ethernet are -

 Thick coax (10BASE-5): This was the original version that used a single coaxial cable
into which a connection can be tapped by drilling into the cable to the core. The 5
refers to the maximum segment length of 500m.
 Thin coax (10BASE-2): This is a thinner variety where segments of coaxial cables are
connected by BNC connectors. The 2 refers to the maximum segment length of about
200m (185m to be precise).
 Twisted pair (10BASE-T): This uses unshielded twisted pair copper wires as physical
layer medium.

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  Ethernet over Fiber (10BASE-F): This uses fiber optic cables as medium of
transmission.

2. Switched Ethernet

Same as classic ethernet but hub is replaced with a switch for the proper functioning.

Developed in 1982.

High speed than classic ethernet : 1Mbps. 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps , 1 Gbps

Secure than classic ethernet.

No collision occurs.

3. Fast Ethernet

In computer networks, Fast Ethernet is a variation of Ethernet standards that carry data
traffic at 100 Mbps (Mega bits per second) in local area networks (LAN).

It was launched in 1995, and stayed the fastest network till the introduction of Gigabit
Ethernet.

Fast Ethernet is popularly named as 100-BASE-X. Here, 100 is the maximum throughput, i.e.
100 Mbps, BASE denoted use of baseband transmission, and X is the type of medium used,
which is TX or FX.

Varieties of Fast Ethernet

The common varieties of fast Ethernet are 100-Base-TX, 100-BASE-FX and 100-Base-T4.

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  100-Base-T4
o This has four pairs of UTP, two of which are bi-directional and the other two
are unidirectional.
o In each direction, three pairs can be used simultaneously for data
transmission.
 100-Base-TX
o This has either two pairs of unshielded twisted pairs (UTP)
o One pair transmits frames from hub to the device and the other from device
to hub.
 100-BASE-FX
o This has two pairs of optical fibers. One pair transmits frames from hub to the
device and the other from device to hub.
o Maximum distance between hub and station is 2000m.
o It has a data rate of 125 Mbps.

4. Gigabit Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet is a variant of the Ethernet technology generally used in local area networks
(LANs) for sending Ethernet frames at 1 Gbps.

Developed in 1999. It can be used as a backbone in several networks, especially those of large
organizations.

Gigabit Ethernet is an enlargement to the earlier 10 Mbps and 100 Mbps 802.3 Ethernet
standards. It provides 1,000 Mbps bandwidth while supporting full compatibility with the set up
base of around 100 million Ethernet nodes.

Coverage area is up to 70km

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Gigabit Ethernet usually employs an optical fibre connection to share records at a very huge
speed over high distances. For short distances, copper cables and twisted pair connections are
utilized.

Advantages of Gigabit Ethernet

The advantages of Gigabit Ethernet are as follows −

 Noise Immunity − The coaxial cable used in an Ethernet network is very well shielded, and
has a very large immunity from electrical noise generated by external sources.
 Reliability − Ethernet connections acquire principal reliability. This is because there is no
delay from the radio frequencies. Therefore, ultimately there are fewer disconnections
and slowdowns in Ethernet. Because the bandwidth is not shared between connected
devices, there are no bandwidth shortages as well.
 Conceptually Simple −Ethernet is clearly daisy-chained closely with coax cable and "T"
adapters. There are generally no hubs, transceivers, or multiple devices used.
 Speed − Speed provided by Ethernet is much higher than compared to the wireless
connection. This is due to the Ethernet supporting one to one connection. As a result, a
speed of 10Gbps or sometimes 100Gbps can be simply managed.
Disadvantages of Gigabit Ethernet

The disadvantages of Gigabit Ethernet are as follows −

 Installation − Ethernet connections are usually harder to install without expert assistance.
Particularly the areas where they required passing walls and various floors. These areas
required to be drilled independently and also multiple cables required to be connected to
several computers and switches.
 Mobility − Mobility is limited. Ethernet is perfect to use in areas where the device is
required for sitting in specific areas.
 Connections − The multiple connections are restricted in Ethernet. If it is using a single
Ethernet connection then only a single device can be linked.
5. 10 Gigabit Ethernet

 In computer networks, 10-Gigabit Ethernet is the family of Ethernet technologies that

achieve maximum rates up to 10 gigabits per second (10 Gbps).
 It is also known as 10GE, 10GbE or 10 GigE.
 10GE is a thousand times faster than standard Ethernet and supports only full-duplex
communication.
 It is used for long distances (more than 75 km)

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