CLOUD COMPUTING

UNIT - I

1. a) What is computing paradigm? List any four computing paradigms ? 2M

b) How do we perceive high performance computing? 3M
c) Differentiate parallel computing and distributed computing. 10M

2. a) Describe the goals of cluster computing. 2M

b) Distinguish cluster computing and grid computing. 3M
c) Establish outline of cloud computing paradigm. 10M

3. a) Categorize types of bio computers? 2M

b) What are quantum computing properties? 3M
c) Discuss about grid computing topology, architecture infrastructure and
advantages. 10M

4. a) Demonstrate cluster computing design objectives. 2M

b) Categorize Nano computers. 3M
c) Explain parallel computing paradigms based on Flynn’s taxonomy. 10M

5. a) List out various characteristics of cloud computing. 2M

b) Differentiate classical with quantum computing 3M
c) Discuss about mobile computing and its significance. 10M

6. a) Name the major components of optical computing 2M

b) What are the motivational factors for distributed computing 3M
c) Differentiate classical and Nano computing 10M
 UNIT – I

Question And Answers

1. a) What is computing paradigm? List any four computing paradigms ? 2M
ANS : Computing paradigm is the technique of linking two or more computers in
to a network.
 Paradigm- a model or example that shows how something works
 Computing- is any activity that uses computers
 Computing paradigm- a model or example that shows how computer works
 The process of utilizing computer technology to complete a task.
 Computing may involve computer hardware and/or software, must involve
some form of a computer system.
 Computing includes :
- Designing, developing and building hardware and
software systems.
- Processing, structuring and managing various kinds of
information.
- Doing scientific research on and with computers.
 In the domain of computing, there are many different standard practices
being followed based on inventions and technological advancements. The
various computing paradigms: namely
1. Parallel Computing
2. Distributed Computing
3. Cluster Computing
4. Grid Computing
5. Cloud Computing
6. Bio Computing
7. Mobile Computing
8. Quantum Computing
9. Optical Computing
10. Nano Computing

b) How do we perceive high performance computing? 3M

ANS : High performance computing (HPC) is the ability to process data and
perform complex calculations at high speeds.
- High performance computing (HPC) is the ability to process data and
perform complex calculations at high speeds.
- As technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI),
and 3-D imaging evolve, the size and amount of data that organizations
have to work with is growing exponentially.
- For many purposes, such as streaming a live sporting event, tracking a
developing storm, testing new products, or analyzing stock trends, the
ability to process data in real time is crucial.
 - To keep a step ahead of the competition, organizations need lightning-fast,
highly reliable IT infrastructure to process, store, and analyze massive
amounts of data.

Main components of HPC :

 To build a high performance computing architecture,
compute servers are networked together into a cluster.
 Software programs and algorithms are run simultaneously
on the servers in the cluster.
 The cluster is networked to the data storage to capture the
output.
 Together, these components operate seamlessly to
complete a diverse set of tasks.

c) Differentiate parallel computing and distributed computing. 10M

ANS : Parallel Computing :
- Parallel computing is defined as a
type of computing where multiple
computer systems are used
simultaneously.
- A problem is broken into sub-
problems and then further broken
down into instructions.
- These instructions from each sub-
problem are executed concurrently
on different processors.
- Parallel computing is also one of
the facets of HPC.
- Here, a set of processors work
cooperatively to solve a
computational problem. These
processor machines or CPUs are
mostly of homogeneous type.
- Therefore, this definition is the same as that of HPC and is broad enough to
include supercomputers that have hundreds or thousands of processors
interconnected with other resources.
- One can distinguish between conventional (also known as serial or
sequential or Von Neumann) computers and parallel computers in the way
the applications are executed.

- In serial or sequential computers, the following apply:

 It runs on a single computer/processor machine having a single
CPU.
 A problem is broken down into a discrete series of instructions.
 Instructions are executed one after another.
- In parallel
computing, since there is simultaneous use of multiple processor
machines, the following apply:
 It is run using multiple processors (multiple CPUs).
 A problem is broken down into discrete parts that can be solved
concurrently.
 Each part is further broken down into a series of instructions.
 Instructions from each part are executed simultaneously on
different processors.
 An overall control/coordination mechanism is employed.

1.2 Distributed Computing :

 A distributed system is a collection of autonomous computers that are

interconnected with each other and cooperate, thereby sharing resources
such as printers and databases.
 Distributed computing is also a computing system that consists of multiple
computers or processor machines connected through a network, which can
be homogeneous or heterogeneous, but run as a single system.
 The connectivity can be such that the CPUs in a distributed system can be
physically close together and connected by a local network, or they can be
geographically distant and connected by a wide area network.

 The heterogeneity in a distributed system supports any number of possible

configurations in the processor machines, such as mainframes, PCs,
workstations, and minicomputers. The goal of distributed computing is to
make such a network work as a single computer. Distributed computing
systems are advantageous over centralized systems, because there is a
support for the following characteristic features:
1. Scalability: It is the ability of the system to be easily expanded
by adding more machines as needed, and vice versa, without
affecting the existing setup.
2. Redundancy or replication: Here, several machines can provide
the same services, so that even if one is unavailable (or failed),
work does not stop because other similar computing supports
will be available
 Parallel Computing Distributed Computing
Distributed computing is a
Parallel computing is a computation type computation type in which networked
in which multiple processors execute computers communicate and
multiple tasks simultaneously. coordinate the work through message
passing to achieve a common goal.
Parallel computing occurs on one Distributed computing occurs between
computer. multiple computers.
In parallel computing multiple processors In distributed computing, computers
perform processing. rely on message passing.
There is no global clock in distributed
All processors share a single master clock
computing, it uses synchronization
for synchronization.
algorithms.
In Parallel computing, computers can
In Distributed computing, each
have shared memory or distributed
computer has their own memory.
memory.

2. a) Describe the goals of cluster computing. 2M

ANS : A cluster computing system consists of a set of the same or similar type of
processor machines connected using a dedicated network infrastructure.
 All processor machines share resources such as a common home directory
and have a software such as a message passing interface (MPI)
implementation installed to allow programs to be run across all nodes
simultaneously.
 This is also a kind of HPC category. The individual computers in a cluster
can be referred to as nodes.
 The reason to realize a cluster as HPC is due to the fact that the individual
nodes can work together to solve a problem larger than any computer can
easily solve.
 And, the nodes need to communicate with one another in order to work
cooperatively and meaningfully together to solve the problem in hand
 If we have processor machines of heterogeneous types in a cluster, this
kind of clusters become a subtype and still mostly are in the experimental
or research stage.

b) Distinguish cluster computing and grid computing. 3M

ANS : Cluster computer processor machines share resources such as a common home
directory and have a software such as a message passing interface (MPI) implementation
installed to allow programs to be run across all nodes simultaneously.
 Grid computing is a network of computing or processor machines
managed with a kind of software such as middleware, in order to access
and use the resources remotely.
 Cluster computing Grid computing
Computers of Cluster computing are Computers of Grid Computing can be
co-located and are connected by high present at different locations and are
speed n/w bus cables. usually connected by internet.
Cluster computing network is Grid computing network is distributed
prepared using a centralized network and have a de- centralized network
topology. topology.
A centralized server controls the task In Grid Computing, multiple servers
scheduling . can exist. Each node behaves
independently without need of any
centralized scheduling

c) Establish outline of cloud computing paradigm. 10M

ANS : Cloud is a parallel and
distributed computing system
consisting of a collection of inter-
connected and virtualized computers
that are dynamically provisioned and
presented as one or more unified
computing resources based on
service-level agreements (SLA)
established through negotiation
between the service provider and
consumers.
• Key characteristics of cloud
computing as:
1) the illusion of infinite
computing resources
2) the elimination of an
up-front commitment
by cloud users; and
3) the ability to pay for use . . . as needed .

There are basically 5 essential characteristics of Cloud Computing :

1. On-demand self-services: The Cloud computing services does not
require any human administrators, user themselves are able to
provision, monitor and manage computing resources as needed.
2. Broad network access: The Computing services are generally provided
over standard networks and heterogeneous devices.
3. Rapid elasticity: The Computing services should have IT resources that
are able to scale out and in quickly and on as needed basis. Whenever
the user require services it is provided to him and it is scale out as soon
as its requirement gets over.
4. Resource pooling: The IT resource (e.g., networks, servers, storage,
applications, and services) present are shared across multiple
 applications and occupant in an uncommitted manner. Multiple clients
are provided service from a same physical resource.
5. Measured service: The resource utilization is tracked for each
application and occupant, it will provide both the user and the resource
provider with an account of what has been used. This is done for various
reasons like monitoring billing and effective use of resource.

Types of Cloud Computing

Cloud computing is Internet-based computing in which there are four different
types of cloud. They are :
1. Public cloud
2. Private cloud
3. Hybrid cloud
4. Community cloud

Public Cloud
 Public clouds are managed by third parties which provide cloud services
over the internet to the public, these services are available as pay-as-
you-go billing models.
 The fundamental characteristics of public clouds are multitenancy. A
public cloud is meant to serve multiple users, not a single customer. A
user requires a virtual computing environment that is separated, and
most likely isolated, from other users.

Private cloud
Private clouds are distributed systems that work on private infrastructure and
provide the users with dynamic provisioning of computing resources. Instead of a
pay-as-you-go model in private clouds, there could be other schemes that manage
the usage of the cloud and proportionally billing of the different departments or
sections of an enterprise. Private cloud providers are HP Data Centers, Ubuntu,
Elastic-Private cloud, Microsoft, etc.
The advantages of using a private cloud are as follows:
1. Customer information protection: In the private cloud security
concerns are less since customer data and other sensitive information do
not flow out of private infrastructure.
2. Infrastructure ensuring SLAs: Private cloud provides specific operations
such as appropriate clustering, data replication, system monitoring, and
maintenance, disaster recovery, and other uptime services.
3. Compliance with standard procedures and operations: Specific
procedures have to be put in place when deploying and executing
applications according to third-party compliance standards. This is not
possible in the case of the public cloud.
Disadvantages of using a private cloud are:
1. The restricted area of operations: Private cloud is accessible within a
particular area. So the area of accessibility is restricted.
2. Expertise requires: In the private cloud security concerns are less since
customer data and other sensitive information do not flow out of private
infrastructure. Hence skilled people are required to manage & operate
cloud services.

Hybrid cloud:
A hybrid cloud is a heterogeneous distributed system formed by combining
facilities of the public cloud and private cloud. For this reason, they are also
called heterogeneous clouds.
 A major drawback of private deployments is the inability to scale on-demand
and efficiently address peak loads. Here public clouds are needed. Hence, a
hybrid cloud takes advantage of both public and private clouds.
Advantages of using a Hybrid cloud are:
1) Cost : Available in cheap cost than other clouds because it is formed by
distributed system.
2) Speed : It is efficiently fast with lower cost, It reduces latency of data transfer
process.
3) Security : Most important thing is security. Hybrid cloud are totally safe and
secured because it works on distributed system network.

Community cloud:
Community clouds are distributed systems created by integrating the services of
different clouds to address the specific needs of an industry, a community, or a
business sector. But sharing responsibilities among the organizations is difficult.
In the community cloud, the infrastructure is shared between organizations that
have shared concerns or tasks. The cloud may be managed by an organization or
a third party.

Sectors that use community clouds are:

1. Media industry: Media companies are looking for quick, simple, low-cost ways
for increasing the efficiency of content generation. Most media productions involve
an extended ecosystem of partners. In particular, the creation of digital content is
the outcome of a collaborative process that includes the movement of large data,
massive compute-intensive rendering tasks, and complex workflow executions.
2. Healthcare industry: In the healthcare industry community clouds are used to
share information and knowledge on the global level with sensitive data in the
private infrastructure.
3. Energy and core industry: In these sectors, the community cloud is used to
cluster a set of solution which collectively addresses the management,
deployment, and orchestration of services and operations.
4. Scientific research: In this organization with common interests in science
share a large distributed infrastructure for scientific computing.
Cloud Computing Services
Most cloud computing services fall into five broad categories:
1. Software as a service (SaaS)
2. Platform as a service (PaaS)
3. Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)
4. Anything/Everything as a service (XaaS)
5. Function as a Service (FaaS)
1. Software as a Service(SaaS)
Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) is a way of delivering services and applications over
the Internet. Instead of installing and maintaining software, we simply access it
via the Internet, freeing ourselves from the complex software and hardware
management.

SaaS provides a complete software solution that you purchase on a pay-as-you-

go basis from a cloud service provider. The SaaS applications are sometimes
called Web-based software, on-demand software, or hosted software.

Advantages of SaaS
1. Cost-Effective: Pay only for what you use.
2. Reduced time: Users can run most SaaS apps directly from their web
browser without needing to download and install any software. This
reduces the time spent in installation and configuration and can reduce
the issues that can get in the way of the software deployment.
3. Accessibility: We can Access app data from anywhere.
4. Automatic updates: Rather than purchasing new software, customers
rely on a SaaS provider to automatically perform the updates.
5. Scalability: It allows the users to access the services and features on-
demand.

2. Platform as a Service (PaaS)

PaaS is a category of cloud computing that provides a platform and environment
to allow developers to build applications and services over the internet. A PaaS
provider hosts the hardware and software on its own infrastructure. As a result,
the development and deployment of the application take place independent of
the hardware.

Advantages of PaaS:
1. Simple and convenient for users: It provides much of the
infrastructure and other IT services, which users can access anywhere
via a web browser.
2. Cost-Effective: It charges for the services provided on a per-use basis
thus eliminating the expenses one may have for on-premises hardware
and software.
 3. Efficiently managing the lifecycle: It is designed to support the
complete web application lifecycle: building, testing, deploying,
managing, and updating.
4. Efficiency: It allows for higher-level programming with reduced
complexity thus, the overall development of the application can be more
effective.

3. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) is a service model that delivers computer
infrastructure on an outsourced basis to support various operations. Typically
IaaS is a service where infrastructure is provided as outsourcing to enterprises
such as networking equipment, devices, database, and web servers.
It is also known as Hardware as a Service (HaaS).
Advantages of IaaS:
1. Cost-Effective: Eliminates capital expense and reduces ongoing cost and
IaaS customers pay on a per-user basis, typically by the hour, week, or
month.
2. Website hosting: Running websites using IaaS can be less expensive
than traditional web hosting.
3. Security: The IaaS Cloud Provider may provide better security than your
existing software.
4. Maintenance: There is no need to manage the underlying data center or
the introduction of new releases of the development or underlying
software. This is all handled by the IaaS Cloud Provider.

4. Anything as a Service (AaaS)

It is also known as Everything as a Service. Most of the cloud service providers
nowadays offer anything as a service that is a compilation of all of the above
services including some additional services.

Advantages of XaaS: As this is a combined service, so it has all the advantages of

every type of cloud service.

5. Function as a Service (FaaS)

FaaS is a type of cloud computing service. It provides a platform for its users or
customers to develop, compute, run and deploy the code or entire application as
functions. It allows the user to entirely develop the code and update it at any time
without worrying about the maintenance of the underlying infrastructure. The
developed code can be executed with response to the specific event. It is also as
same as PaaS.
 FaaS, provides auto-scaling up and scaling down depending upon the
demand. PaaS also provides scalability but here users have to configure
the scaling parameter depending upon the demand.
Advantages of FaaS :
 Highly Scalable: Auto scaling is done by the provider depending upon
the demand.
 Cost-Effective: Pay only for the number of events executed.
 Code Simplification: FaaS allows the users to upload the entire
application all at once. It allows you to write code for independent
functions or similar to those functions.
 Maintenance of code is enough and no need to worry about the servers.
 Functions can be written in any programming language.
 Less control over the system.

3. a) Categorize types of bio computers? 2M

ANS : Bio computing is defined as the process of building computers that use
biological materials, mimic biological organisms or are used to study biological
organisms.
Bio Computing-Biochemical computers :
 Biochemical computers use the immense variety of feedback loops that
are characteristic of biological chemical reactions in order to achieve
computational functionality.
Bio Computing-Bioelectronic computers:
 In bioelectronic computers, the measured output is the nature of
the electrical conductivity that is observed in the bioelectronic computer.
Engineering Biocomputers :
 The behavior of biologically derived computational systems such as these
relies on the particular molecules that make up the system, which are
primarily proteins but may also include DNA molecules.

b) What are quantum computing properties? 3M

ANS : Quantum Computing Properties :

1. Superposition
 Given two states, a quantum particle exists in both states at the same
time.
 Alternatively, we may say that the particle exists in any combination of
the two states.
 The particle's state is always changing but it can be programmed such
that, for example, 30% of the time it's in one state and 70% in the other
state.

2. Entanglement
 Two quantum particles can form a single system and influence each
other. Measurements from one can be correlated from the other.
 3. Quantum Interference:
 Trying to measure the current state of a quantum particle leads to a
collapse; that is, the measured state is one of the two states, not
something in between.
 External interference influences the probability of particle collapsing to
one state or the other.
 Quantum computing systems must therefore must be protected from
external interference.

c) Discuss about grid computing topology, architecture infrastructure and

advantages. 10M
ANS : The computing resources in most of the organizations are underutilized but
are necessary for certain operations.
 The idea of grid computing is to make use of such non utilized
computing power by the needy organizations, and there by the return
on investment (ROI) on computing investments can be increased.
 Several machines on a network collaborate under a common protocol
and work as a single virtual supercomputer to get complex tasks done.
This offers powerful virtualization by creating a single system image that
grants users and applications seamless access to IT capabilities.

A typical grid computing

network consists of three
machine types:
- Control
node/server: A
control node is a
server or a group
of servers that
administers the
entire network
and maintains
the record for
resources in a
network pool.
- Provider/grid node: A provider or grid node is a computer that
contributes its resources to the network resource pool.
- User: A user refers to the computer that uses the resources on the
network to complete the task.
 Grid computing operates by running specialized software on every computer
involved in the grid network. The software coordinates and manages all the
tasks of the grid. Fundamentally, the software segregates the main task into
subtasks and assigns the subtasks to each computer. This allows all the
computers to work simultaneously on their respective subtasks. Upon
 completion of the subtasks, the outputs of all computers are aggregated to
complete the larger main task.
 In grid computing, each computing task is broken into small fragments and
distributed across computing nodes for efficient execution. Each fragment is
processed in parallel, and, as a result, a complex task is accomplished in
less time. Let’s consider this equation:
X = (4 x 7) + (3 x 9) + (2 x 5)
 Typically, on a desktop computer, the steps needed here to calculate the
value of X may look like this:
Step 1: X = 28 + (3 x 9) + (2 x 5)
Step 2: X = 28 + 27 + (2 x 5)
Step 3: X = 28 + 27 + 10
Step 4: X = 65
 However, in a grid computing setup, the steps are different as three
processors or computers calculate different pieces of the equation separately
and combine them later. The steps look like this:
Step 1: X = 28 + 27 + 10
Step 2: X = 65
 As seen above, grid computing combines the involved steps due to the
multiplicity of available resources. This implies fewer steps and shorter
timeframes.

Advantages
 Can solve larger, more complex problems in a shorter time
 Easier to collaborate with other organizations
 Make better use of existing hardware

Disadvantages
 Grid software and standards are still evolving
 Learning curve to get started
 Non-interactive job submission

4. a) Demonstrate cluster computing design objectives. 2M

ANS : A cluster computing system consists of a set
of the same or similar type of processor machines
connected using a dedicated network infrastructure.
 All processor machines share
resources such as a common home
directory and have a software such as
a message passing interface (MPI)
implementation installed to allow
programs to be run across all nodes
simultaneously.
 This is also a kind of HPC category.
 The individual computers in a cluster can be referred to as nodes.

b) Categorize Nano computers. 3M

ANS : Nano computing refers to computing systems that are constructed from
nano scale components.
 Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the study and application of extremely
small things and can be used across all the other science fields, such as
chemistry, biology, physics, materials science, and engineering.
 Types of nanocomputers have been suggested or proposed by researchers
and futurists are :
1. Electronic nano computers
2. Chemical and biochemical nano computers
3. Mechanical nano computers
4. Quantum nano computer
 Electronic nanocomputers would operate in a manner similar to the way
present-day microcomputers work.
 Chemical and biochemical nanocomputers would store and process
information in terms of chemical structures and interactions.
 Mechanical nanocomputers would use tiny moving components called
nanogears to encode information.
 A quantum nanocomputer would work by storing data in the form of
atomic quantum states or spin.

c) Explain parallel computing paradigms based on Flynn’s taxonomy. 10M

ANS : Parallel Computing :
- Parallel computing is defined as a
type of computing where multiple
computer systems are used
simultaneously.
- A problem is broken into sub-
problems and then further broken
down into instructions.
- These instructions from each sub-
problem are executed concurrently
on different processors.
- Parallel computing is also one of
the facets of HPC.
- Here, a set of processors work
cooperatively to solve a
computational problem. These
processor machines or CPUs are
mostly of homogeneous type.
 M.J. Flynn proposed a classification for the organization of a computer system
by the number of instructions and data items that are manipulated
simultaneously. They are
1. Single-instruction, single-data (SISD)
2. Single-instruction, multiple-data (SIMD)
3. Multiple-instruction, single-data (MISD)
4. Multiple-instruction, multiple-data (MIMD)

Single-instruction, single-data (SISD) :

 Single instruction: Only one instruction stream is being acted or executed
by CPU during one clock cycle.
 Single data stream: Only one data stream is used as input during one
clock cycle.

 A SISD computing system is a uniprocessor machine that is capable of

executing a single instruction operating on a single data stream.
 Most conventional computers have SISD architecture where all the
instruction and data to be processed have to be stored in primary memory.

Single-instruction, multiple-data (SIMD) :

• A SIMD system is a multiprocessor machine, capable of executing the

same instruction on all the CPUs but operating on the different data
stream.
• A type of parallel computer
- Single instruction: All processing units execute the same
instruction at any given clock cycle
 - Multiple data: Each processing unit can operate on a
different data element
• This type of machine typically has an instruction dispatcher, a very high-
bandwidth internal network, and a very large array of very small-capacity
instruction units.
• Best suited for specialized problems characterized by a high degree of
regularity, such as image processing.
• Synchronous (lockstep) and deterministic execution.

Multiple-instruction, single-data (MISD) :

• An MISD computing is a multiprocessor machine capable of executing

different instructions on processing elements but all of them operating
on the same data set.

• A single data stream is fed into multiple processing units.

• Each processing unit operates on the data independently via

independent instruction streams.

• Few actual examples of this class of parallel computer have ever existed.
One is the expérimental Carnegie-Mellon C.mmp computer (1971).

• Multiple cryptography algorithms attempting to crack a single coded

message.

Multiple-instruction, multiple-data (MIMD) :

 An MISD computing is a multiprocessor machine capable of executing
different instructions on processing elements but all of them operating on
the same data set.
 Currently, the most common type of parallel computer.
 Most modern computers fall into this category.
  Multiple Instruction: every processor may be executing a different
instruction stream
 Multiple Data: every processor may be working with a different data stream
 Execution can be synchronous or asynchronous, deterministic or non-
deterministic
 Examples: most current supercomputers, networked parallel computer
"grids" and multi-processor SMP computers - including some types of PCs.

5. a) List out various characteristics of cloud computing. 2M

ANS : Key characteristics of cloud computing as:
i. the illusion of infinite computing resources
ii. the elimination of an up-front commitment by cloud users;
and
iii. the ability to pay for use . . . as needed .
 There are basically 5 essential characteristics of Cloud Computing :
1. On-demand self-services: The Cloud computing services does not
require any human administrators, user themselves are able to
provision, monitor and manage computing resources as needed.
2. Broad network access: The Computing services are generally
provided over standard networks and heterogeneous devices.
3. Rapid elasticity: The Computing services should have IT resources
that are able to scale out and in quickly and on as needed basis.
Whenever the user require services it is provided to him and it is scale
out as soon as its requirement gets over.
4. Resource pooling: The IT resource (e.g., networks, servers, storage,
applications, and services) present are shared across multiple
applications and occupant in an uncommitted manner. Multiple
clients are provided service from a same physical resource.
5. Measured service: The resource utilization is tracked for each
application and occupant, it will provide both the user and the
 resource provider with an account of what has been used. This is
done for various reasons like monitoring billing and effective use of
resource.

b) Differentiate classical with quantum computing 3M

ANS :

c) Discuss about mobile computing and its significance. 10M

ANS : Computing Technologies are the technologies that are used to manage,
process, and communicate the data.
• Wireless simply means without any wire i.e. connecting with other
devices without any physical connection.
• Wireless computing is transferring the data or information between
computers or devices that are not physically connected to each other and
having a “wireless network connection”.
• For example, mobile devices, Wi-Fi, wireless printers and scanners, etc.
Mobiles are not physically connected but then too we can transfer data.
• It’s a Hand Held device, But communications takes place between
various resources using wireless.
 • Mobile communication for voice applications (e.g., cellular phone) is
widely established
throughout the world and
witnesses a very rapid growth
in all its dimensions.
• An extension of this
technology is the ability to
send and receive data across
various cellular networks
using small devices such as
smart phones.
• Mobile is a computing device
that not require any network
connection or any connection
to transfer data or
information between devices.
• For example laptops, tablets, smartphones, etc.
• Mobile computing allows transferring of the data/information, audio,
video, or any other document without any connection to the base or
central network.
• These computing devices are the most widely used technologies
nowadays.
• There are some wireless/mobile computing technologies such as:
5. Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
6. Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
7. Wireless in Local Loop (WLL)
8. General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
9. Short Message Service (SMS)

Mobile communication can be divided in the following four types:

1. Fixed and Wired
2. Fixed and Wireless
3. Mobile and Wired
4. Mobile and Wireless

1. Fixed and Wired: In Fixed and Wired configuration, the devices are fixed
at a position, and they are connected through a physical link to
communicate with other devices.
For Example, Desktop Computer.
 2. Fixed and Wireless: In Fixed and Wireless configuration, the devices are
fixed at a position, and they are connected through a wireless link to
make communication with other devices.
For Example, Communication Towers, Wi-Fi router
3. Mobile and Wired: In Mobile and Wired configuration, some devices are
wired, and some are mobile. They altogether make communication with
other devices.
For Example, Laptops.
4. Mobile and Wireless: In Mobile and Wireless configuration, the devices
can communicate with each other irrespective of their position. They can
also connect to any network without the use of any wired device.
For Example, WiFi Dongle.

6. a) Name the major components of optical computing. 2M

ANS : A computer can be developed that can perform operations 10 or more times
faster than a conventional electronic computer.
 The main Optical components required for computing in an Optical
Computer are:
1. VCSEL (Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Micro Laser)
2. Spatial Light Modulators.
3. Optical Logical Gates.
4. Smart Pixels.
1. Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Micro Laser (VCSEL) :
 VCSEL(pronounced ‘vixel’)is a semiconductor vertical cavity surface emitting
laser diode that emits light in a cylindrical beam vertically from the surface
of a fabricated wafer.
 But rather than reflective ends, in a VCSEL there are several layers of
partially reflective mirrors above and below the active layer.
 Layers of semiconductors with differing compositions create these mirrors,
and each mirror reflects a narrow range of wavelengths back in to the cavity
in order to cause light emission at just one wavelength.

2. Spatial Light Modulators (SLM) :

 SLM play an important role in several technical areas where the control
of light on a pixel-by-pixel basis is a key element, such as optical
processing and displays.
 For display purposes the desire is to have as many pixels as possible in
as small and cheap a device as possible.

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) :

 Wavelength division multiplexing is a method of sending many different
wavelengths down the same optical fiber.
 WDM can transmit up to 32 wavelengths through a single fiber, but cannot
meet the bandwidth requirements of the present day communication
systems.
  Nowadays DWDM (Dense wavelength division multiplexing) is used. This
can transmit up to 1000 wavelengths through a single fiber. That is by
using this we can improve the bandwidth efficiency.

4. Smart Pixels Technology (SPT) :

 Smart pixel technology is a relatively new approach to integrating electronic
circuitry and optoelectronic devices in a common framework.
 Here, the electronic circuitry provides complex functionality and
programmability.
 While the optoelectronic devices provide high-speed switching and
compatibility with existing optical media.
 Arrays of these smart pixels leverage the parallelism of optics for
interconnections as well as computation.

b) What are the motivational factors for distributed computing 3M

ANS : There are four major reasons for building distributed systems: resource
sharing, computation speedup, reliability, and communication.
Resource Sharing : If a number of different sites (with different capabilities) are
connected to one another, then a user at one site may be able to use the
resources available at another. For example, a user at site A may be using a
laser printer located at site B. Meanwhile, a user at B may access a file that
resides at A.
Computation Speedup : If a particular computation can be partitioned into
subcomputations that can run concurrently, then a distributed system allows
us to distribute the subcomputations among the various sites; the
subcomputations can be run concurrently and thus provide computation
speedup.
Reliability : If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can
continue operating, giving the system better reliability If the system is
composed of multiple large autonomous installations (that is, general-purpose
computers), the failure of one of them should not affect the rest.
Communication : When several sites are connected to one another by a
communication network, the users at different sites have the opportunity to
exchange information.

c) Differentiate classical and Nano computing 10M

ANS : Classical Computing : Classical computing is another name
for binary computing. In this traditional approach to computing, information is
stored in bits that are represented logically by either a 0 (off) or a 1 (on).
 Today's processors, including x86 and ARM processors, support classical
computing.
 Classical computing contrasts with quantum computing, a type of non-
classical computing that represents data in quantum bits (qubits). A
 classical bit is either on or off, but a qubit can be on and off at the same
time, a condition known as superposition.
 Unlike classical computers, quantum computers require specialized and
expensive infrastructure. They must operate at near-absolute zero
temperatures and be shielded from outside radio waves, light and magnetic
fields to prevent errors.

Nano Computing :
 Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology conducted at the
nanoscale, which is about 1 to 100 nanometers.
 Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the study and application of
extremely small things and can be used across all the other science
fields, such as chemistry, biology, physics, materials science, and
engineering.
 One nanometer is a billionth of a meter, or 10-9 of a meter.
 Nanoscience and nanotechnology involve the ability to see and to control
individual atoms and molecules.
 Everything on Earth is made up of atoms—the food we eat, the clothes
we wear, the buildings and houses we live in, and our own bodies.
 Applications include Interdisciplinary area- Areas ranging from
computing and medicine to stain resistant textiles sutan lotions

Nano Computing: Nano Computers

- A nanocomputer is a computer whose physical dimensions are
microscopic.
- The field of nanocomputing is part of the emerging field
of nanotechnology.
- Several types of nanocomputers have been suggested or
proposed by researchers and futurists.
5. Electronic nano computers
6. Chemical and biochemical nano computers
7. Mechanical nano computers
8. Quantum nano computer

Nano Computing: Types

Electronic nanocomputers would operate in a manner similar to the way

present-day microcomputers work.
• The main difference is one of physical scale.
• More and more transistor s are squeezed into silicon chips with each
passing year; witness the evolution of integrated circuits ( IC s) capable of
ever-increasing storage capacity and processing power.
• The ultimate limit to the number of transistors per unit volume is
imposed by the atomic structure of matter.
• Most engineers agree that technology has not yet come close to pushing
this limit.
 • In the electronic sense, the term nanocomputer is relative.
• By 1970s standards, today's ordinary microprocessors might be called
nano devices.

Chemical and biochemical nanocomputers would store and process

information in terms of chemical structures and interactions.
• Biochemical nanocomputers already exist in nature; they are manifest in
all living things. But these systems are largely uncontrollable by
humans.
• We cannot, for example, program a tree to calculate the digits of pi , or
program an antibody to fight a particular disease (although medical
science has come close to this ideal in the formulation of vaccines,
antibiotics, and antiviral medications).
• The development of a true chemical nanocomputer will likely proceed
along lines similar to genetic engineering.
• Engineers must figure out how to get individual atoms and molecules to
perform controllable calculations and data storage tasks.

Mechanical nanocomputers would use tiny moving components called

nanogears to encode information.
• Such a machine is reminiscent of Charles Babbage 's analytical engines
of the 19th century.
• For this reason, mechanical nanocomputer technology has sparked
controversy; some researchers consider it unworkable.
• All the problems inherent in Babbage's apparatus, according to the
naysayers, are magnified a millionfold in a mechanical nanocomputer.
• Nevertheless, some futurists are optimistic about the technology, and
have even proposed the evolution of nanorobots that could operate, or be
controlled by, mechanical nanocomputers.

A quantum nanocomputer would work by storing data in the form of atomic

quantum states or spin.
• Technology of this kind is already under development in the form of
single-electron memory (SEM) and quantum dots.
• The energy state of an electron within an atom, represented by the
electron energy level or shell, can theoretically represent one, two, four,
eight, or even 16 bits of data.
• The main problem with this technology is instability.
• Instantaneous electron energy states are difficult to predict and even
more difficult to control.
• An electron can easily fall to a lower energy state, emitting a photon ;
conversely, a photon striking an atom can cause one of its electrons to
jump to a higher energy state.

Nano Computing: Advantages & Disadvantages

 Advantages
- High computing performance
- Low power computing
- Easily portable flexible
- Faster processing
- Lighter and small computer devices
- Noise Immunity

Disadvantages
- It is very expensive and developing it can cost you a lot of money.
- It is also pretty difficult to manufacture.
- These particles are very small, problems can actually arise from
the inhalation of these minute particles.

Nano Computing: Applications

- Braking Ciphers
- Statistical Analysis
- Factoring large numbers
- Solving problems in theoretical physics

Classical Computing Nano Computing

Used for the representation and
Used by large scale multi-purpose
manipulation of data by computers
computers and devices.
smaller than a microcomputer.
Information is stored in quantum dots or
Information is stored in bits.
spins.
There are an infinite, continuous number
There are a discrete number of possible of possible states. Number of nanoscale
states, 0 or 1. structures including biomolecules such as
DNA and proteins.
Calculations are deterministic, meaning Calculations are probabilistic, meaning
repeating the same input results in the there are multiple possible outputs to the
same output. same input.
Data processing is carried out by
Data processing is carried out by logic
computers that are smaller than a
and in sequential order.
microcomputer.
Operations are defined by Boolean Operations are defined by solid-state
Algebra. quantum bit operation
Circuit behavior is defined by very small
Circuit behavior is defined by classical
electronic devices and molecules, their
physics.
fabrication.