INDORE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, INDORE

DEPARTMENT
OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LAB MANUAL

BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LAB

(BT-203)

FOR FIRST YEAR / I SEMESTER

Session ___________

Faculty
Mr. Suveer Dubey

Lab Technician
Mr. ________________________

B ME BT 203
 INDORE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, INDORE

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
EXPERIMENT NO. 1:

Study of Universal Testing machines

EXPERIMENT NO. 2:

Linear and Angular measurement using, Micrometer, Slip Gauges, Dial Gauge and
Sine-bar
EXPERIMENT NO. 3:

Study of Lathe Machine

EXPERIMENT NO. 4:

Study of Drilling Machines

EXPERIMENT NO. 5:

Verification of Bernoulli’s Theorem

EXPERIMENT NO. 6:

Study of various types of Boilers

EXPERIMENT NO. 7:

Study of different IC Engines

EXPERIMENT NO. 8:

Study of different types of Boilers Mountings and accessories

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EXPERIMENT No. 1
Tensile Test on Universal Testing Machines (UTM)
Objective: - To determine the tensile strength of a specimen.
Materials and equipment required
Universal testing machine, Specimen of different ferrous and nonferrous materials
Theory
The tensile test is the most applied one of all mechanical tests. In this test ends of a test piece are
fixed into grips connected to a straining device and to a load• measuring device. If the applied
load is small enough, the deformation of any solid body is entirely elastic. An elastically deformed
solid will return to its original position as soon as load is removed. However, if the load is too large,
the material can be deformed permanently. The initial part of the tension curve (fig.2), which is
recoverable immediately after unloading, is termed as elastic and rest of the curve, which represents
the manner in which solid undergoes plastic deformation is termed plastic. The stress below which
the deformation is essentially entirely elastic is known as the yield strength of material. In some
materials (like mild steel) the onset of plastic deformation is denoted by a sudden drop in load
indicating both an upper and lower yield point. However, some materials do not exhibit a sharp
yield point. During plastic deformation, at larger extensions strain hardening cannot compensate
for the decrease in section and thus the load passes through a maximum and then begins to decrease.
As this stage the’ Ultimate strength ‘, which is defined as the ratio of the specimen to original cross
–sectional area, reaches a maximum value. Further loading will eventually cause ‘neck’ formation
and rupture.
Usually, a tension test is conducted at room temperature and the tensile load is applied slowly.
During this test either round or flat specimens (fig.1) may be used. The round specimens may have
smooth, shouldered, or threaded ends. The load on the specimen is applied mechanically or
hydraulically depending on the type of testing machine.
Procedure
1. Measure the dimensions of a specimen
Diameter, d = •••••,
Total length of a specimen, L = •••••,
Cross - Sectional Area, A0 = ••••,

Mark gauge length (Lo) at three different portions on the specimen, covering effective length of

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a specimen. (This is required so that necked portion will remain between any two points of gage
length on the specimen.)
2. Grip the specimen in the fixed head of a machine. (Portion of the specimen must be
gripped as shown in the figure.

3. Fix the extensometer within the gauge length marked on the specimen and adjust the dial
of extensometer at zero.
4. Adjust the dial of a machine to zero, to read load applied.
5. Select suitable increments of loads to be applied so that corresponding elongation can be
measured from dial gauge.
6. Keep speed of machine uniform. Record yield point, maximum load point, point of
breaking of specimen.
7. Remove the specimen from machine and study the fracture observes type of fracture.
8. Measure dimensions of tested specimen. Fit the broken parts together and measure
reduced diameter and final gage length.
Observation
Specimen prepared from M.S. bar/CI/Al
1. Diameter = d = •••• mm
2. Gauge length (lo) = 5×d = •••••mm

3. Original Cross-sectional area of the specimen, Ao = •••••• mm

2

4. Final gauge length obtained = Lo = •••• mm

5. Final diameter obtained = •••• mm

Observation Table 1

Sr. Load applied =P Area of a specimen Stress Modulus of elasticity = E

No. (N) (Ao) (N/mm 2) (N/mm2)

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Observation Table 2

Sr. Contraction in diameter Deformation in Lateral Linear strain Poisson ratio

No. = d (mm) length (mm) strain

Fig. Specimen diagram

Note:
1. Use Vernier caliper to measure diameter, gage length etc. for the specimen.
2. If C.I. specimen is to be tested only one observation will be taken at failure.

Result:
1. Calculate stress and strain for every interval of applied load.
2. Draw stress • strain curve as shown in the Fig. 2

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 INDORE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, INDORE

Fig.
Stress – Strain Graph of Mild Steel

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 INDORE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, INDORE
EXPERIMENT No.2

Objective: - Linear And Angular Measurement Using, Vernier; Micrometer, Slip Gauge, Dial
Gauge and Sine- Bar

Apparatus: - Vernier Caliper, Vernier Height Gauge, Micrometer, And Sin Bar

Vernier Height Gauge

This is just as vernier caliper, equipped with special base block and other attachment which make
the instrument suitable for height measurements. Along with the sliding jaw assembly, arrangement
is provided to carry a removable clamp. The upper and lower surfaces of the measuring jaws are
parallel to the base, so that it can be used for measurements over or under surface. The vernier
height gauge is mainly used in the inspection of parts and work. With a scribing attachment in place
of measuring jaw, this can be used to scribe lines at certain distance above the surface. However,
dial indicator can also be attached in the clamp and many useful measurements made as it exactly
gives indication when dial tip just touching surface. For all these measurement, use of surface plate
as datum surface is very essential.

Procedure-

1. Take the material (sample) for which the value must be measured.

2. Check the vernier and main scale must coincide at 0

3. After checking the 0-mark put the sample piece and slowly leaves the measuring jaw over the
piece

4. Tight the screw and measure the main scale also vernier scale reading

5. The line coincide with the main scale that the VSR

6. By adding MSR with VSR*L

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Fig. Height Gauge

Vernier Instruments:

The three elements of venire caliper, viz. beam, fixed jaw, and sliding jaw permit substantial
improvements in the commonly used measuring techniques over direct measurement with line
graduated rules. The alignment of the distance boundaries with the graduations of the rule is ensured
by means of the positive contact.

Procedure:
1. The whole movable jaw assembly is adjusted so that the two-measuring tip just touch two parts to
be measured.
2. Then lock nut is tightened.
3. Final adjustment depending upon the sense of correct feel is made by the adjusting screw.
4. Measuer the main scale readings i.e., the line coincides with o mark of vernier scale and noted
down the reading.
5. The measuring tip is so designed as to measure inside as well as outside dimension.
6. Calculate MSR, VSR and TSR
MSR- main scale reading
VSR-vernier scale reading
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TSR-total scale reading

Fig. Vernier Caliper

Micrometer
The end of the screw forms one measuring tip and the other measuring tip is constituted by a stationary
anvil in the base of the frame. The screw is threaded for certain length and is plan afterwards. The plain
portion is called sleeve, and its end is the measuring surface. The spindle is advanced by turning
thimble connected to the spindle. The spindle is a side fit over the barrel and barrel is the fixed part
attached with frame. The barrel is graduated in unit of 0.05cm.i.e.,20 division per cm, which is the lead
of the screw for one complete revolution. The thimble has got 25divisions around its periphery on
circular portion. Thus, it sub-divides each revolution of the screw in 25 equal parts, i.e., each division
corresponds to 0.002cm.

Fig. Micrometer

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Procedure
1. The whole movable jaw assembly is adjusted so that the two-measuring tip just touch two parts to be
measured.
2. Then lock nut is tightened.
3. Final adjustment depending upon the sense of correct feel is made by the adjusting screw.
4. Measuer the main scale readings i.e., the line coincides with o mark of vernier scale and noted down
the reading.
5. The measuring tip is so designed as to measure inside as well as outside dimension.
6. Calculate MSR, VSR and TSR

Micrometer Depth Gauge.

It is used for measuring the depth of holes, slots and recessed areas. It has got one shoulder which act as
reference surface and is held firmly and perpendicular to the centerline of the hole. Here also for larger ranges of
measurements, extension rod is used. The screw micrometer depth gauge has range of 20mm or 25mm. The
length of the micrometer depth gauge varies from 0to 225mm.The rod is inserted through the top of the
micrometer. The rod is marked after every 10mm so that it could be clamped at any position in using this
instrument, firth it must be insured that the edge of the hole is free from barrel.

Procedure.
1. To measure the depth of any material, use the micrometer depth gauge.
2. Take the sample piece, the length of the rod varies from 0 to 225mm.
3. Various rods are used as per requirement at the certain limit that gauge will move as it is by rotating screw in
clockwise direction.
4. Tight the screw and measure the main scale and circular scale also adding the initial value of rod this gives
MSR, VSR and TSR by adding LC
5. Note down reading by following procedure.

Sine Bar
Introduction
Sine bar is used in conjunction with slip gauges for precise angular measurement. Sine bar is used to measure
angle very accurately or face locating any work to a given angle. Sine bars are made from high chromium,
corrosion resistant steel, hardened, ground and stabilized.

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Fig. Sine Bar

Two cylinders of equal dia. are attached at ends. The axes of these two cylinders are mutually parallel to each
other and also parallel to and at equal distance from the upper surfaces of the sine bar.
Accuracy up to 0.01mm /m length of sine bar can be obtained.

Fig. Sine Bar & Slip Gauge

Slip Gauges: -
Introduction: - Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of steel having a cross-section of about 30by 10mm.These
gauges are used to provide end standard of specific length by temporarily combining a number of individual
gauges by ‘wringing’, each representing a dimension (standard) into a single gauge bar. Here The basic
requirements are formation of a very reasonable cohesion between individual element and its dimension truly
within specific limits representing the desired nominal dimensions.
Accuracy: -
Accuracy up to 10 millionth of an inch for flatness and parallelism can be obtained in slip gauges.
Grading: -
Grading according to accuracy and application.
AA - for master slip gauges.
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A - for reference purpose.
B - for working slip gauges.
Grade 2 - Workshop grade
Grade 1 - Tool-room grade (More precise work)
Grade 0 - Inspection grade
Grade 00 - Standard-room grade
Calibration grade - Special grade (Prepared on chart)
Precaution in use of sine bar:
1) The sine bar should not be used for angle greater than 60 o.
2) A compound angle should not be formed by misaligning the component with sine bar.
3) Accuracy of sine bar should be ensured.
4) As far as possible longer sine bar should be used since many errors are reduced by using longer sine bars.
Wringing: -
The term ‘wringing’ refers to condition of intimate and complete contact and of permanent adhesion between
measuring faces. Wringing is done by hand though sliding and twisting motions. One gauge is placed
perpendicular to other using standard gauging pressure and rotary motion is then applied until the blocks are lined
up. In this way air is expelled from between the gauge faces causing the blocks to adhere. This adherence is
caused partly by molecular attraction and partly by atmospheric pressure. Similarly, for separating two wring slip
gauges, combined sliding and twisting motion should be used.

Fig. Slip Gauges

Procedure: -
1) Surface plate is placed on a horizontal surface.
2) Build up slip gauges of a proper height by wringing.
3) Place one of the cylinders of sine bar on surface plate and other on slip gauges.
4) Dial indicator is set at one end of the component and moved to the other end.
5) Note the deviation in dial reading.

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EXPERIMENT No. 3

STUDY OF LATH MACHINE

Objective: To study construction and working of a center lath machine.

Working Principle:
The work piece is hold in the joint and it operated along its axis. The resting tool is moved along the
job to perform the required operation.

Parts of Lath: -
1. Bed – It is heavy, rigid casting made in one piece. It is the base of foundation of lathe.
2. Head stock – It is a permanently fastened to inner ways at the left-hand bed end of the bed. Its
use is to support the spindle and drilling arrangement. In order to allow the long bar work
holding devices to pass through the head stock spindle is made hollow a tapered sleeve fits
into the tapered spindle are made hole.
3. Tail stock – It is situated at the right end of the bed. It is used for supporting right end the
work piece. It is also used for holding & fitting the tool such as drill, reamer, taper etc.
4. Carriage – The carriage controls and supports the cutting tool. It has five major parts. Saddle,
Cross slides, Compound rest, Tool post, Apron.
5. Feed Mechanism – It is employed for imparting varies feed (longitudinal, cross & angular) to
the cutting tool.

Lathe Tools –
1. Turning tool (left hand to right hand)
2. Facing tool (left hand to right hand)
3. Chamfering tool (hand to right hand)
4. Form or profile tool
5. Parting or necking tool
6. External or threading tool
7. Internal threading tool
8. Boring tool

Lathe Operation - common lathe operations which can be carried out on a lathe are enumerated
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below: -

1. Facing
2. Plane turning
3. Step turning
4. Taper turning
5. Drilling
6. Reaming

7. Boring
8. Vander cutting
9. Threading
10. Knurling
11. Forming

Lathe Accessories -
1. Chuck
(i) Three jaw universal jaw chuck
(ii) Four jaw Independent Chuck
(iii) Magnetic chuck
(iv) Air or Hydraulic Chuck
(v) Collet
2. Angle plate
3. Drilling plate
4. Lathe carrier
5. Lathe Mandrill
6. Rests
7. Jigs or Fixtures

Lathe Attachment -
1. Stops
2. Grinding Attachment
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3. Milling Attachment
4. Taper turning attachment
5. Copying Attachment
6. Relaxing Attachment

Fig. Lathe Machine

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EXPERIMENT No. 4

Objective: - Study of Drilling Machine

Introduction: -

Drilling machine is one of the most important machine tools in a workshop. It was designed to produce
a cylindrical hole of required diameter and depth on metal workpieces. Though holes can be made by
different machine tools in a shop, drilling machine is designed specifically to perform the operation of
drilling and similar operations. Drilling can be done easily at a low cost in a shorter period of time in a
drilling machine. Drilling can be called as the operation of producing a cylindrical hole of required
diameter and depth by removing metal by the rotating edges of a drill. The cutting tool known as drill is
fitted into the spindle of the drilling machine. A mark of indentation is made at the required location
with a centre punch. The rotating drill is pressed at the location and is fed into the work. The hole can be
made upto a required depth.

Construction of a drilling machine: -

The basic parts of a drilling machine are a base, column, drill head and spindle. The base made of cast
iron may rest on a bench, pedestal or floor depending upon the design. Larger and heavy-duty machines
are grounded on the floor. The column is mounted vertically upon the base. It is accurately machined,
and the table can be moved up and down on it. The drill spindle, an electric motor and the mechanism
meant for driving the spindle at different speeds are mounted on the top of the column. Power is
transmitted from the electric motor to the spindle through a flat belt or a ‘V’ belt.

Types of drilling machines - Drilling machines are manufactured in different types and sizes according
to the type of operation, amount of feed, depth of cut, spindle speeds, method of spindle movement and
the required accuracy. The different types of drilling machines are:

1. Portable drilling machine (or) Hand drilling machine

2. Sensitive drilling machine (or) Bench drilling machine

3. Upright drilling machine

4. Radial drilling machine

5. Gang drilling machine

6. Multiple spindle drilling machine

7. Deep hole drilling machine

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Radial drilling machine- The radial drilling machine is intended for drilling on medium to large and
heavy workpieces. It has a heavy round column mounted on a large base. The column supports a radial
arm, which can be raised or lowered to enable the table to accommodate workpieces of different heights.
The arm, which has the drill head on it, can be swung around to any position. The drill head can be
made to slide on the radial arm. The machine is named so because of this reason. It consists of parts like
base, column, radial arm, drill head and driving mechanism. A radial drilling machine is illustrated.

Fig. Radial Drilling Machine

Drilling machine operations-

Though drilling is the primary operation performed in a drilling machine, a number of similar operations
are also performed on holes using different tools. The different operations that can be performed in a
drilling machine are:

1. Drilling

2. Reaming

3. Boring

4. Counter boring

5. Countersinking
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6. Spot facing

7. Tapping

8. Trepanning

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EXPERIMENT No. 5

VERIFICATION OF BERNAULLI’S THEOREM

Objective: - To study the flow through a 2 D converging diverging duct and verify Bernoulli’s
Theorem as applied to steady, incompressible, and inviscid flow.

Apparatus:
1. Set up of Bernoulli’s Theorem experiment.
2. Stopwatch.
3. Measuring flask

Introduction & theory:

For any mass of flowing liquid, when there is a continuous connection between all the particles of the
flowing liquid, the total energy remains the same at every section provided there is no addition or
subtraction of energy, and that the flow is steady, incompressible and inviscid.

Energy of liquid in motion:

The energy in general may be defined as the capacity to do work. Though the energy exists in many
forms, yet the following are important from the subject point of view.

(1) Potential energy: -

It is the energy possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its position. If liquid particle is Z meter above
the horizontal datum, the potential energy of the particle will be Z Nm / N of liquid. Potential head of
liquid, at that point, will be Z meter of liquid.

(2) Kinetic energy: -

It is the energy possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its motion or velocity. If liquid particle is
flowing with a mean velocity of V m / s, the kinetic energy of the particle will be V2 / 2g Nm / N. It
represents KE of the fluid per unit weight; If we cancel out the N (Newton), V 2 / 2g represents the
Velocity or Kinetic Head (it has dimensions of length, m).

(3) Pressure energy: -

It is the energy possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its Pressure. If the liquid particle is under a
pressure of P kgf / m2, the pressure energy of the particle will be P / w of the liquid, where w is specific
weight of liquid. The pressure head of the liquid under this pressure will be P / w meter of the liquid.

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Total energy of a liquid particle in motion is the sum of its potential energy, kinetic energy and
pressure energy.

Total energy, E = Z + (V2 / 2g) + (P / w)

Now, Total head of a liquid particle in motion is the sum of its potential head, kinetic head and
pressure head.

Total Head H = Z + (V2 / 2g) + (P / w) m of liquid. As

per Bernoulli’s equation
Z + (V2 / 2g) + (P / w) = Constant

where,

Z is potential energy.
(V2 / 2g) is kinetic energy.
(P / w) is pressure energy.

Experimental set – up:

1. Flow channel 650 mm long, transparent acrylic.
2. Supply with flow control valves.
3. Manometric tubes (11 No.) fixed over flow channel with separate scale.
4. Sump tank of suitable size.
5. Measuring tank of suitable size.
6. Inlet- out tank of suitable size.
Procedure:
1. Start the motor.
2. Open the by-pass valve fully.
3. Control the gate valve for steady flow.
4. Allow some time to raise the water level in manometric tubes.
5. Take the height level in manometric tubes.
6. Take the time required for 100 mm rise in water level of measuring tank.
Observations:
1. WIDTH OF CHANNEL = 0.05M
2. AREA OF MEASURING TANK = (0.045 X 0.35) m2
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Observation table:

Sr. Tubes Head Head Height of Channel Area of Channel A

No. No. (cm) (m) (m) (m2)
1 1 0.039 0.00195
2 2 0.034 0.0017
3 3 0.029 0.00145
4 4 0.024 0.0012
5 5 0.019 0.00095
6 6 0.015 0.00075
7 7 0.019 0.00095
8 8 0.024 0.0012
9 9 0.029 0.00145
10 10 0.034 0.0017
11 11 0.039 0.00195

Calculations:
1. Discharge “Q” = [ (Area of measuring tank x 0.1) / (Time required in Sec.)] in m3 / sec
2. Velocity “V” = [ (Discharge ‘Q’ in m3 / sec) / (Cross section area ‘A’ in m2)] in m /s
3. Pressure “P” = (ρ × g × H)
where, ρ = 1000 kg / m3
g = 9.81 m2 / sec
H = Head in m.
4. Pressure Head = P /w,
where, w = Specific weight of water = 1000 x 9.81 N / m3

Result table: -

Sr. No. TUBE NUMBER P/w V2 / 2g (P / w) + (V2 / 2g )

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Limitations of Bernoulli’s theorem:

The Bernoulli’s theorem has been derived on certain assumptions which are rarely possible. Thus, the
Bernoulli’s theorem has the following limitations.

1. Bernoulli’s equation can be applied to a stream tube having an ideal & incompressible liquid at
constant density & temperature. For a pipeline which consists of a number of stream tubes, the mean
velocity of flow is to be taken for use in the Bernoulli’s equation.
2. If any force is added or extracted in the flow, it should be taken into account.
3. In the case of unsteady flow, the changes in the kinetic energy are to be accounted.
4. For turbulent flow, a part of energy will be dissipated as heat. This loss is to be considered in the
Bernoulli’s equation.
5. For viscous flow the loss of energy due to shear force, has to be accounted.
6. For the flow of liquid in curved path, the energy due to centrifugal force must be taken into account.

20
18
16
14
12
10
Potential 8
Energy Head 6
4
(m) 2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Number of Tubes (n)

Fig. Graph showing variation of Potential Energy Head (Y-axis) with respect to number of tubes(X –
axis).

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EXPERIMENT No. 6

TO STUDY ABOUT VARIOUS TYPES OF BOILERS

Objective: To study about various types of Boilers.

Introduction

Boiler: It is a closed vessel in which steam is produced from water by combustion of fuel.
A boiler or steam generator is a device used to create steam by applying heat energy to water.
Although the definitions are somewhat flexible, it can be said that older steam generators were
commonly termed boilers and worked at low to medium pressure (1–300 psi/0.069–20.684 bar;
6.895–2,068.427 kPa) but, at pressures above this, it is more usual to speak of a steam generator.

An industrial boiler, originally used for supplying steam to a stationary steam engine or turbine.

A boiler or steam generator is used wherever a source of steam is required. The form and size
depends on the application: mobile steam engines such as steam locomotives, portable
engines and steam-powered road vehicles typically use a smaller boiler that forms an integral part of
the vehicle; stationary steam engines, industrial installations and power stations will usually have a
larger separate steam generating facility connected to the point-of-use by piping. A notable exception
is the steam-powered fireless locomotive, where separately generated steam is transferred to a
receiver (tank) on the locomotive.
A boiler is defined as “a closed vessel in which water or other liquid is heated, steam or vapor is
generated, steam is superheated, or any combination thereof, under pressure or vacuum, for use
external to itself, by the direct application of energy from the combustion of fuels, from electricity or
nuclear energy.”
Classification of Boilers:

1. According to their Axis (Horizontal, Vertical or Inclined)

I. If the axis of the boiler is horizontal, the boiler is called as horizontal.

II. If the axis is vertical, it is called vertical boiler.

III. If the axis is inclined, it is known as inclined boiler.

2. According to Tubes (Fire Tube and Water Tube)

I. In the fire tube boilers, the hot gases are inside the tubes and the water surrounds the tubes,
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Examples: Cochran, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.

II. In the water tube boilers, the water is inside the tubes and hot gases surround them, Examples:
Babcock and Wilcox boiler.

3. According to Arrangement of Firing (Externally Fired and Internally Fired)

I. The boiler is known as externally fired if the fire is outside the shell, Examples: Babcock and
Wilcox boiler.

II. The furnace is located inside the boiler shell, Examples: Cochran, Lancashire boiler etc.

4. According to Path Flow of Air and Flue Gases (Forced Circulation and Natural Circulation)

I. In forced circulation type of boilers, the circulation of water is done by a forced pump.

II. In natural circulation type of boilers, circulation of water in the boiler takes place due to natural
convention currents produced by the application of heat, Examples: Lancashire, Babcock and Wilcox
boiler etc.

5. According to Working Pressure (High-Pressure and Low-Pressure Boilers)

I. The boilers which produce steam at pressures of 80 bar and above are called high pressure
boilers, Examples: Babcock and’ Wilcox boilers.

II. The boilers which produce steam at pressure below 80 bar are called low pressure boilers,
Examples: Cochran, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.

6. According to Position of Boiler (Stationary and Portable)

I. Stationary boilers are used for power plant-steam, for central station utility power plants, for
plant process steam etc.

II. Mobile boilers or portable boilers include locomotive type, and other small units for temporary
use at sites (Large Ships).

7. According to Number of Tubes (Single Tube and Multi-tube Boilers)

The fire tube boilers are classified as single tube and multi-tube boilers, depending upon whether thefire tube is
one or more than one.

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STUDY OF COCHRAN BOILER

Objective: To study about Cochran boiler.

Construction and Working: -

It is one of the best types of vertical multi-tubular boiler, and has a number of horizontal fire tubes it
also a Low Pressure Boiler.
Construction: Cochran boiler consists of a cylindrical shell with a dome shaped top where the space
is provided for steam. The furnace is one-piece construction and is seamless. Its crown has a
hemispherical shape and thus provides maximum volume of space.
Working: The fuel is burnt on the grate and ash is collected and disposed of from ash pit. The gases
of combustion produced by burning of fuel enter the combustion chamber through the flue tube and
strike against fire brick lining which directs them to pass through number of horizontal tubes, being
surrounded by water. After which the gases escape to the atmosphere through smoke box and
chimney.
Specifications of a standard Cochran Boiler:
1. Shell diameter 2.75 m

2. Height 5.79 m

3. Working pressure 6.5 bar (max. pressure = 15 bar)

4. Steam capacity 3500 kg/hr (max. capacity = 4000 kg/hr)

5. Heating surface 120 m2

6. Efficiency 70 to 75% (depending on the fuel used)

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Fig. Cochran Boiler

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STUDY OF LANCASHIRE BOILER

Objective: To study constructional features, working and steam generation in horizontal shell
“Lancashire” boiler.

Construction &Working:
Lancashire boiler is horizontal stationary internally fired natural circulation fire tube boiler. It has a
cylindrical steel shell of 2 to 3 meter in diameter and length varies from 8-10 meter. The shell
contains two large internal flue steel tubes having diameter of 1meter. The grate in situated inside
each main flue tube. The combustion of coal take place inside the furnace from where flue gases are
produced and pass through main flue tubes. The boiler grate is at the bottom of fire tube. The
construction of Lancashire boiler will be seen from three different views Back of the great is the Fire
Bridge and flow along the main flue. The hot gases after combustion pass from furnace over the Fire
Bridge and flow along the main flue tubes to the rear side of the boiler where they pass into the
bottom flue tubes. The flow gases move transverse to the front side of the boiler and try to heat the
water comes in contact at the bottom and side. After this the flue gases divide and pass through both
sides of flue tubes and transverse back to boiler and turn reverse to bottom tubes.

The dampers are placed at the end of each side of flue tubes to regulate the flow of flue gases through
side. These dampers are operated by chain passing over a pulley at the front of the boiler. The usual
mountings are fitted with the boiler for proper working.

Mountings:
The following necessary mounting provide for sate easy working of the boiler as an essential
component

A) Feed Check Valve: - Feed check valve is fitted in feed water supply line. The feed water is
supplied to the boiler through this valve. It is fitted in front side of the boiler and it is
unidirectional flow valve. It opens only when the feed water supply pressure is more than
inside the boiler and feed water will flow into the boilers shell.
B) Water Level Indictor: - The water level indictor is also fitted on front side of the boiler shell
to indicate the level of boiler shell fitted with the water.
C) Pressure Gauge: - The pressure inside the boiler can be indicated by the pointer of the
pressure gauge. It is fitted in front side of the boiler and of the uppermost position in steam
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space in the boilers shell.
D) Safety Valves: - Two safety valves are fitted on top of the crown shell and in steam space.
Lancashire boiler is usually provided with two safety valves one is dead weight safety valve
and the other is high steam low water safety valve.

E) Steam Stop Valve: - the steam stop valve is fitted on top of the boiler shell i.e. in steam
space. The steam valve is used for regulating supply of generated steam in boiler shell. The
stem generated in the boiler and in the dome of the boiler shell first enters to the anti-priming
pipe where the water particles amounted in steam are removed, only steam is required to flow
through steam stop valve.
F) Fusible Plug: - Fusible plug is mounted on the main flue tube above the grate and below the
water (valve) level in the shell this plug under normal conditions is immersed in water in the
boiler which in the boiler which keeps the temp of fusible metal in the fusible plugs below its
melting point.
G) Blow of Cock: - During annual and also on other maintenance schedule occasions, it is
necessary to empty the boiler, to make shell clear, to inspect, to clean and repair instantly.
Similarly, it is also a common practice to remove periodically the sediment and other
deposited impurities from the boiler shell through this blow off cock.
H) Man Hole: - A man hole usually elliptical or oval shaped and is provided at the side of the
boiler. The man hole provided for the entry of person for repair, cleaning and inspection
purpose during annual maintenance. To avoid the escape of steam through the mountings, the
man hole and other fitting are made steam tight with the help of asbestos sheet or asbestos
board which are used as a packing material. In Lancashire boiler, generally circular man hole
is provided.

Common Specifications of Lancashire Boiler:

Diameter of shell – 2 m to 3 m.
Length of shell – 7 m to 9 m.
Size of water tube – 7.62 cm to10.16 cm
Working pressure – 16 bar (max)
Steaming capacity – 9,000 kg/hr (max)
Efficiency – 50% to 65%

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Fig. Lancashire Boiler

STUDY OF BABCOCK & WILCOX BOILER

Objective: To study about Babcock and Wilcox boiler.

Babcock and Wilcox is a water-tube boiler is an example of horizontal inclined tube boiler. It is also a
High Pressure Boiler.
Construction: Babcock and Wilcox boiler with longitudinal drum. It consists of a drum connected to
a series of front end and rear end header by short riser tubes. To these headers are connected a series
of inclined water tubes of solid drawn mild steel. The angle of inclination of the water tubes to the
horizontal is about 15° or more.
Working: The fire door the fuel is supplied to grate where it is burnt. The hot gases are forced to
move upwards between the tubes by baffle plates provided. The water from the drum flows through
the inclined tubes via down take header and goes back into the shell in the form of water and steam
via uptake header. The steam gets collected in the steam space of the drum. The steam then enters
through the anti-priming pipe and flows in the super-heater tubes where it is further heated and is
finally taken out through the main stop valve and supplied to the Steam turbine or Steam engine when
needed. The pressure of steam in case of cross drum boiler may be as high as 100 bar and steaming
capacity up to 27000 kg/h. At the lowest point of the boiler is provided a mud collector to remove the
mud particles through a blow-dawn-cock.

Basically, Babcock & Wilcox boiler is a water tube boiler in which water circulates in tubes heated
externally by the fire. Fuel is burned inside the furnace, creating hot gas which heats water in the
steam-generating tubes. In smaller boilers, additional generating tubes are separate in the furnace,
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while larger utility boilers rely on the water-filled tubes that make up the walls of the furnace to
generate steam.

The heated water then rises into the steam drum. Here, saturated steam is drawn off the top of the
drum. In some services, the steam will reenter the furnace through a super heater to become
superheated. Superheated steam is defined as steam that is heated above the boiling point at a given
pressure. Superheated steam is a dry gas and therefore used to drive turbines, since water droplets can
severely damage turbine blades.

Cool water at the bottom of the steam drum returns to the feed water drum via large-bore 'down
comer tubes', where it pre-heats the feed water supply. (In 'large utility boilers', the feed water is
supplied to the steam drum and the down comers supply water to the bottom of the water walls). To
increase economy of the boiler, exhaust gases are also used to pre-heat the air blown into the furnace
and warm the feed water supply. Such water tube boilers in thermal power station are also
called steam generating units.

The older fire-tube boiler design – in which the water surrounds the heat source and the gases from
combustion pass through tubes through the water space – is a much weaker structure and is rarely
used for pressures above 2.4 MPa. A significant advantage of the water tube boiler is that there is less
chance of a catastrophic failure: there is not a large volume of water in the boiler nor are there large
mechanical elements subject to failure.

Common Specifications of Babcock & Wilcox Boiler:

Diameter of drum – 1.22 m to 1.83 m.

Length of drum – 6.096 m to 9.144 m.
Size of water tube – 7.62 cm to10.16 cm
Size of super heater tube – 3.84 cm to 5.71 cm.
Working pressure – 40 bar (max)
Steaming capacity – 40,000 kg/hr (max)
Efficiency – 60% to

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Fig. Babcock & Wilcox Boiler

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EXPERIMENT No. 7

STUDY OF DIFFERENT IC ENGINES

STUDY OF FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE

Objective: To study construction, working and various thermodynamic processes of four-stroke

petrol engine.

Introduction:
4 stroke petrol engine is an (IC Engine) internal combustion engine as combustion of fuel take place
inside the cylinder. In this the working cycle is completed in 4 stroke of the piston or two revolutions
of the crankshaft. It is also called by the name spark ignition engine (S.I. engine) as the combustion of
fuel take place in the presence of spark produce by the spark plug.

Classification:
(1) On the basis of cooling arrangement
a) Air cooled engine
b) Water cooled engine
(2) On the basis of no. of cylinder
a) Single cylinder engine
b) Multi cylinder engine

Constructional details:
The purpose of each cylinder is described in short as follow: -
(A) Cylinder: - It is the main part in the I.C. engine in which combustion of fuel take place and
piston reciprocates & develops power.
(B) Cylinder head: - It is the upper portion of the cylinder which contains. Inlet valve, exhaust
valve and spark plug.
(C) Piston: - It is a reciprocating member which reciprocates inside the cylinder. Its function is to
compress the air fuel mixer and to convert the heat energy. Produce during combustion into
mechanical energy
(D) Connecting Rod: - It is a steel rod used to connect piston with the crank.
(E) Inlet valve: - It is a small opening in the cylinder head, which control the admission of air –

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fuel mixture into the cylinder.
(F) Exhaust valve: - It is used for the removal of exhaust gases from the cylinder, and it
isprovided on the cylinder head.
(G) Crank: -It is a part which is used to transit the torque from the connecting rode to the crank
shaft.
(H) Crank shaft: - The crank shaft is a member on which the main mechanical power is obtained.

(I) Top dead center (TDC): - The extreme position of the top of the cylinder is called top dead
center position.

(J) Bottom dead center (BDC): - The extreme position of piston at the bottom of the cylinder is
called bottom dead center position.

Working:
The working cycle of the 4-stroke petrol engine is competed in 4 stokes of piston or two revolutions
ofthe crank. The 4 strokes are mentioned below: -

1) Suction Stroke: The piston is at the Topmost Position (TDC) and is ready to move down drawing
the mixture of air & fuel. The inlet valve is open & exhaust valve is closed. As the piston moves
downwards the fresh charge of air fuel mixture enters the cylinder through the inlet valve due to
suction created. This continues until piston reaches the Bottom Dead Center (BDC). At this position
the inlet value closes. This downward movement of piston is known as suction stroke & crank rotates
by 180° during this period.

2) Compression Stroke: During this stroke both valves (inlet & exhaust) are closed & the piston
moves upward & compresses the charge enclosed in the cylinder. The pressure & temperature of the
mixture are increasing continuously during this process. As the piston reaches the TDC position, the
mixture is ignited by an electric spark.

3) Power or Expansion stroke: The increased pressure of the mixture exerts a large force & pushes
the piston down. During expansion stroke both valves remains closed. The high pressure &
temperature gases push piston downwards “& gas pressure gradually decreases. Piston moves from
TDC to BDC. As work is done this is called power stroke. Exhaust valve opens as piston reaches to
BDC. Pressure falls down to atmospheric pressure.

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4) Exhaust stroke: Now piston moves upward from BDC to TDC. Exhaust valve is open & inlet
valve is closed. Moving piston pushes out the burnt gases through exhaust valve. As piston reaches
TDC, again the inlet valve opens & fresh charge is taken during next suction stroke.

Advantage of Four stroke petrol Engines: -

(1) Thermodynamic efficiency of four stroke engine is very high as compared to two stroke
petrolengines due to effective compression.
(2) Consumption of lubricating oil is less in four stroke cycle engines because of low temperature.
(3) Specific fuel consumption in 4-stroke engine as compared to two strokes is less because
ofeffective scavenging.
(4) Sufficient time is available for the exhaust gas produced less noise.

Disadvantages of 4-stroke petrol Engines: -

(1) The mechanism of four stroke petrol engine is very complicated.

(2) Cost of four stroke cycle is more or high.

(3) At the same engine speed of four stroke petrol engines produces half the power stroke
producedby two stroke petrol engines.

(4) Four stroke petrol Engine is heavier and occupies large area.

Uses: - Four stroke petrol Engine is used in automobiles and power plants etc.

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Fig. Four-stroke Petrol

Engine

Fig. Theoretical P-V diagram of a Four-stroke Petrol Engine

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STUDY OF FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE
Objective: - To study construction, working and various thermodynamic processes of four-stroke
Diesel engine.

Introduction:
4 stroke diesel engine is an (IC engine) internal combustion engine as combustion of fuel take place
inside the cylinder. In this the working cycle is completed in 4 stroke of the piston or two revolutions
of the crankshaft. In case of diesel engine only air is sucked, and spark plug is replaced by fuel
injection. It is also known as compression ignition (CI) because the ignition takes place due to the
heat produced in the engine cylinder at the end of compression stroke

Constructional detail:

The purpose of each cylinder is described in short as follow: -

(B) Cylinder: - It is the main part in the I.C. engine in which combustion of fuel take place and piston
reciprocates & develops power.
(C) Cylinder head: - It is the upper portion of the cylinder which contains. Inlet valve, exhaust valve
and spark plug
(D) Piston: - It is a reciprocating member which reciprocates inside the cylinder. Its function is to
compress the air fuel mixer and to convert the heat energy. Produce during combustion into
mechanical energy
(E) Connecting Rod: - It is a steel rod used to connect piston with the crank
(F) Inlet valve: - It is a small opening in the cylinder head, which control the admission of air into
the cylinder.
(G) Exhaust valve: - It is used for the removal of exhaust gases from the cylinder, and it is
providedon the cylinder head.
(H) Crank: - it is a part which is used to transit the torque from the connecting rode to the crank shaft.
(I) Crank shaft: - The crank shaft is a member on which the main mechanical power is obtained.
(J) Top dead center (TDC): - the extreme position of the top of the cylinder is called top dead center
position.
(K) Bottom dead center (BDC): - the extreme position of piston at the bottom of the cylinder is
called bottom dead center position.

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Fig. Theoretical P-V diagram of a Four-stroke Petrol Engine

Working: -
Suction stroke: With the movement of the piston from T.D.C. to B.D.C. during this stroke, the inlet
valve opens and the air at atmospheric pressure is drawn inside the engine cylinder; the exhaust valve
however remains closed. This operation is represented by the line 5-1.
Compression stroke: The air drawn at atmospheric pressure during the suction stroke is compressed to
high pressure and temperature as the piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. Both the inlet and exhaust
valves do not open during any part of this stroke. This operation is represented by 1-2.
Power stroke or expansion stroke: As the piston starts moving from T.D.C to B.D.C, the quantity of
fuel is injected into the hot compressed air in fine sprays by the fuel injector and it (fuel) starts burning
at constant pressure shown by the line 2-3. At the point 3 fuel supply is cut off. The fuel is injected at the
end of compression stroke but in actual practice the ignition of the fuel starts before the end of the
compression stroke. The hot gases of the cylinder expand adiabatically to point 4. Thus, doing work on
the piston.
Exhaust stroke: The piston moves from the B.D.C. to T.D.C. and the exhaust gases escape to the
atmosphere through the exhaust valve. When the piston reaches the T.D.C. the exhaust valve closes, and
the cycle is completed. This stroke is represented by the line 1-5.

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Fig. Four-stroke Diesel Engine

Application: - Four Stroke diesel engines are used in heavy power engines such as: -

(a) Generators
(b) Bulldozers
(c) Ships
(d) Automobiles

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STUDY OF TWO STROKE ENGINE
Objective: To study construction, working and various thermodynamic processes of two-stroke
engine.

Introduction: The working cycle is completed in two stroke of the piston or in one revolution of the
crankshaft as against two crankshaft revolution in a four-stroke cycle engine. The preparatory stroke
(suction and exhaust) is combine with the working stroke (compression and expansion). The
following two methods have been used to accomplish the desired objective.

(i) Providing a separate pump outside the engine cylinder to compressible charge (air-fuel mixture
from carburetor or air alone from atmosphere) before forcing it into the cylinder. The pump is an
integral part of the engine and gets its motive power from the engine itself. The arrangement is
referred to as two channel system and is used for large capacity multi-cylinder engines.
(ii) Crank-case compression system where the crankcase works as an air pump as the piston moves
up and down. The charge (air-fuel mixture or air alone) is compressed by the pumping action of
the underside of the piston before being supplied to the engine cylinder. The arrangement is
referred to as three-channel system and is commonly used for single cylinder small power engine
such as scooter and motorcycle engines.

Construction: -

Figure shows the arrangement of a typical three-port engine employing crank case compression. The
piston which is closely fitted in the cylinder is connected to the crankshaft through connecting rod
and crank. The top of the piston is usually crown-shaped and that assists in sweeping the spent-up
gases towards the exhaust port with the help of fresh charge. The engine employs ports as against
valves as provide in a four-stroke system. These ports are cut in the exhaust port. The inlet and
exhaust ports are located on one side, and the transfer port is provided on the other side. The cylinder
top is provided with an electric spark plug in a petrol engine, or a nozzle for injecting the fuel in a
diesel engine.

Working: -

The charge is led to the crankcase through the inlet port. The charge consists of a mixture of air and
petrol prepared by the carburetor in case of petrol engine. The diesel engine admits only fresh air
through the atmosphere. The transfer port takes the compresses charge from the crankcase to the
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engine cylinder. The spent-up gases are discharged to the atmosphere through the exhaust port. The
closing and opening of the ports are controlled by up and down motion of the piston inside the
cylinder. The piston crown helps to prevent the loss of incoming fresh charge (charge being carried
with the spent-up gases) and uses its momentum for exhausting only the burnt gases. Scavenging
is the term applied to the process of forcing the burnt gases through exhaust port by deflecting fresh
charge across the cylinder.

Sequence of Events: -

Fig explains the working principle and sequence of events in a two-stroke cycle system as under.

Ignition and Induction: -

In fig the piston occupies the almost TDC position towards the end of compression stroke. The
compressed charge is being ignited by providing a spark, or fuel is being injected into the hot
compressed air. The combustion of fuel occurs, and thermal energy is released. There occurs a rise
both in the pressure and temperature of combustion products.

At the same time, a partial vacuum (pressure lower than atmosphere) exists in the crank case and
fresh charge is being inducted into the crank case through the inlet port which is uncovered by the
piston.

Expansion and Compression: -

The high-pressure gases push the piston down, expansion takes place and power is developed. With
downward movement of the piston, the charge is the crank case gets compressed by the underside of
the piston to a pressure of about 1.4 bar absolute.

After completion of about 80% of expansion stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust port. Some of the
combustion products which are still above atmospheric pressure escape to the atmosphere. On its
further downward motion, the piston uncovers the transfer port and allows the slightly compressed
charge from the crank case to be admitted into the cylinder via the transfer port.

Exhaust and Transference: -

The piston lies at its bottom dead center position. The expanding gases escape through the exhaust
port and simultaneously the slightly compressed charge from the crank case is forced into the cylinder
through the transfer port. The charge strikes the deflector on the piston crown, rises to the top of the
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cylinder and [pushes out most of the burnet gases. During the scavenging, a part of the fresh charge is
likely to leave with the exhaust gases. The cylinder is completely filled with the fresh charge,
although it is somewhat diluted due to mixing with the burnt gases.

When the piston moves upwards, it first covers the transfer port and stops the flow of fresh charge
into the cylinder. Little later, exhaust port is also covered by the piston and effective compression of
the charge starts and continues till the piston reaches TDC. The cycle thus completed within two
strokes and one revolution of crank shaft.

I.P.= INLET PORT T.P.= TRANSFER PORT E.P.=EXHAUST PORT

Fig. Two Stroke

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EXPERIMENT No.8

Objective: To study the working and function of mountings and accessories in boilers.

Apparatus: - Model of mountings and accessories parts in boilers.

Theory: -

Boiler: - A steam boiler is a closed vessel in which steam is produced from water by combustion of
fuel.

BOILER MOUNTINGS: - The components which are fitted on the surface of the boiler for
complete safety and control of steam generation process are known as boiler mountings. The
following are the various important mountings of a boiler.

Pressure Gauge- It is usually mounted on the front top of the boiler shell. It is mounted on each
boiler to show the pressure of the steam. Its dial is graduated to read the pressure in Kilograms per
sq. centimeter. Bourdon’s pressure gauge is commonly used as shown in Fig. The essential elements
of this gauge are the elliptical spring tube which is made of bronze and is solid drawn. One end of
this tube is attached by lines to a toothed quadrant and the other end is connected to a steam space.

Fig. Pressure Gauge

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Safety Valves- They are needed to blow off the steam when pressure of the steam in the boiler
exceeds the working pressure. These are placed on the top of the boiler. There are four types of
safety valves:

1. Dead weight safety valve

2. Lever safety valve

3. Spring loaded safety valve

4. Low water high steam safety valve

Spring loaded safety valve- A spring loaded safety valve is mainly used for locomotives and marine
boilers. In this type, the valve is loaded by means of a spring, instead of dead weight. A spring-
loaded safety valve is as shown in the Fig.

Fig. Spring Loaded Safety Valve

It consists of two valves, resting on their seats. Valve seats are mounted on the upper ends of two
hallow valve chests, which are connected by a bridge. The lower end of these valves chests have
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common passage which may be connected to the boiler. There is a lever which has two pivots, one of
which is integral with it and the other is pin jointed to the lever. This pivot rests on the valves and
forces them to rest on their respective seats with the help of a helical spring.

Feed Check Valve- A feed check valve is shown in Fig. The function of the feed check valve is to
allow the supply of water to the boiler at high pressure continuously and to prevent the back flow the
boiler when the pump pressure is less than boiler pressure or when pump fails. Feed check valve is
fitted to the shell slightly below the normal water level of the boiler.

Fig. Feed Check Valve

Fusible Plug- It is fitted to the crown plate of the furnace of the fire. The function of fusible plug is
to extinguish the fire in the fire box, when water level in the boiler comes down the limit and it
prevents from blasting the boiler, melting the tube and overheating the fire-box crown plate. A
fusible plug is shown in fig. It is located in water space of the boiler. The fusible metal is protected
from direct contact of water by gun metal plug and copper plug. When water level comes down, the
fusible metal melts due to high heat and copper plug drops down and is held by gun metal ribs.
Steam comes in contact with fire and distinguishes it. Thus, it prevents boiler from damages.
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Fig. Fusible Plug

Blow Off Cock- The blow off cock as shown in fig., is fitted to the bottom of a boiler drum and
consists of a conical plug fitted to body or casing. The casing is packed, with asbestos packing, in
groves round the top and bottom of the plug. The asbestos packing is made tight and plug bears on
the packing. Blow off cock has to function are:
1. To empty the boiler whenever required.
2. To discharge the mud, scale or sedimentation which are accumulated at the bottom of the boiler.

Fig. Blow Off Cock

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Water Level Indicator- It is an important fitting, which indicates the water level inside the
boiler to an observer. It is a safety device, up on which the correct working of the boiler depends.
This fitting may be seen in froth of the boiler and are generally two in number. The upper end of
the valve opens in steam space while the lower end opens in the water. The valve consists of a
strong glass tube. The end of the tube pass through stuffing boxes formed in the hollow casting.
These casting are flanged and bolted to the boiler. It has three cocks; two of them control the
passage between the boiler and glass tube, while the third one (the drain cock) remains closed.

Fig. Water Level Indicator

Steam Stop Valve- A valve placed directly on a boiler and connected to the steam pipe which
carries steam to the engine or turbine is called stop valve or junction valve. It is the largest valve

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on the steam boiler. It is, usually, fitted to the highest part of the shell by means of a flange as
shown in fig. The principal functions of a stop valve are: 1. To control the flow of steam from the
boiler to the main steam pipe. 2. To shut off the steam completely when required. The body of the
stop valve is made of cast iron or cast steel. The valve seat and the nut through which the valve
spindle works, are made of brass or gun metal.

Fig. Steam Stop Valve

BOILER ACCESSORIES: The appliances installed to increase the efficiency of the boiler are
known as the boiler accessories. The commonly used accessories are:

Economiser- Economiser is a one type of heat exchange which exchanges some parts of the
waste heat of flue gas to the feed water. It is placed between the exit of the furnace and entry into
the chimney. Generally, economiser is placed after the feed pump because in economiser water
may transfer into vapour partially, which creates a priming problem in feed pump water into the
boiler drum. If economiser is used before feed pump it limits the temperature rise of water. As
economiser is shown in fig. It consists of vertical cast iron tubes attached with scraper. The
function of scraper is to remove the root deposited on the tube, mechanically.

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Fig. Economiser

Steam Injector - An injector is a device which is used to lift and force water into a boiler i.e.
operating at high pressure. It consists of a group of nozzles, so arranged that steam expanding in
these nozzles imparts its kinetic energy to a mass of water. There are many advantages of using
injector such as they occupy minimum space, have low initial costs and maintenance costs.
Though the steam required to operate the injector is much more than that in the feed pump for an
equivalent duty; the injector has the advantage that practically the whole of the heat of the steam
is returned back to the boiler.

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 INDORE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, INDORE

Fig. Steam Injector

Super Heater - An element of steam generating unit in which the steam is super-heated, is
known is super heater. A super heater is used to increase the temperature of saturated steam at
constant pressure. It is usually placed in the path of hot flue gases and heat of the flue gases is
first used to superheat the steam as shown in figure. The steam enters in the down-steam tube and
leaves at the front header. The overheating of super heater tube is prevented by the use of a
balanced damper which controls the flue gas. Steam consumption of turbine is reduced by about
1% for each 5.5°C of superheat.

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 INDORE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, INDORE

Fig. Superheater

Feed Pump - The function of the feed pump is to pump the feed water to the boiler. The pumps
may be rotary or reciprocating. The rotary pump is generally of high-speed centrifugal type. They
are driven by small steam turbine or by electric motor and are used when large quantity of water
is to be supplied to boiler. The reciprocating pumps may be single or double acting. The most
commonly used form of independent reciprocating feed pump is that in which the steam cylinder
is directly connected to the rod or to the piston of the water cylinder.

Air Pre-heater- The function of air pre-heater is to increase the temperature of air before it
enters the furnace. It is installed between the economiser and the chimney. The air required for
the purpose of combustion is drawn through the air pre-heater and its temperature is raised when
passed through ducts. The preheated air gives higher furnace temperature which results in more
heat transfer to the water and reduces the fuel consumption. There are three types of pre-heaters:

1. Tubular type 2. Plate type 3. Regenerative type

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 INDORE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, INDORE

Fig. Tubular Type Air Preheater

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