PART 2

Introduction and
Preliminaries
IT 104* [Session 2]
 TOPICS
▪ Propositions
▪ Logical Connectives and Truth Tables
▪ Conditional and Biconditional Propositions
▪ Tautologies and Contradictions
▪ Logical Equivalence
▪ Arguments
▪ Applications of Logic in Circuits

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 TOPICS
▪ Propositions
▪ Logical Connectives and Truth Tables
▪ Conditional and Biconditional Propositions
▪ Tautologies and Contradictions
▪ Logical Equivalence
▪ Arguments
▪ Applications of Logic in Circuits

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 BUT WAIT!!!

Let’s have a review!

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 Exercises [Part 1]
▪ Use the symbols ~, ^ and v, and write the following
statements.
▫ both p or q and r
▫ p or both q and r
▫ either p and q or r
▫ p and either q or r
▫ neither p nor q

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 Exercises [Part 2]
Use the symbols ~, ∧ and ∨ to write the following statements.
[Note: Use grouping symbols.]
▫ 𝑝: “-6 is a positive number”
▫ 𝑞: “3 is a positive number”
▫ 𝑟: “ 5 is an irrational number”

1. -6 and 3 are both not positive numbers

2. -6 and 3 are not both positive numbers
3. either -6 is a positive number or 3 is a positive number
and 5 is irrational
4. 5 is irrational but -6 is not a positive number
5. either -6 is a positive number or 3 is a positive number
but they are not both positive numbers
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 Logical Equivalence
▪ Two propositions P (p,q,r,…) and Q (p,q,r,..) are said
to be logically equivalent or simply equivalent if and
only if they have identical truth values.

▪ In symbols, P (p,q,r,…) ≡ Q (p,q,r…)

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 Negating Conditional and Equivalent
Propositions
▪ The negation of the conditional statement “p → q” is
the conjunction of “p ∧ ~q”.

▪ The equivalent of the conditional statement “p → q”

is the disjunction of ~p V q.

Note: To prove the stated claims, the two propositions must be

logically equivalent.

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 Logical Equivalence: Examples
▪ Show that (p q) is logically equivalent to (p ∧ q) ∨
(~p ∧ ~q).
▪ Prove that the conditional proposition p → s and its
contrapositive ~s → ~p are logically equivalent
▪ Prove or disprove that ~(p → q) is logically
equivalent to p ∧ ~q.
▪ Verify the De Morgan’s law: [~(p v q) ≡ ~p ∧ ~q]
using truth table.

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 Logical Equivalence: Examples
▪ Show that (p q) is logically equivalent to (p ∧ q) ∨
(~p ∧ ~q).
▪ Prove that the conditional proposition p → s and its
contrapositive ~s → ~p are logically equivalent
▪ Prove or disprove that ~(p → q) is logically
equivalent to p ∧ ~q.
▪ Verify the De Morgan’s law: [~(p v q) ≡ ~p ∧ ~q]
using truth table.

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 Logical Equivalence: Examples
▪ Show that (p q) is logically equivalent to (p ∧ q) ∨
(~p ∧ ~q).

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 Logical Equivalence: Examples
▪ Show that (p q) is logically equivalent to (p ∧ q) ∨
(~p ∧ ~q).
▪ Prove that the conditional proposition p → s and its
contrapositive ~s → ~p are logically equivalent
▪ Prove or disprove that ~(p → q) is logically
equivalent to p ∧ ~q.
▪ Verify the De Morgan’s law: [~(p v q) ≡ ~p ∧ ~q]
using truth table.

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 Logical Equivalence: Examples
▪ Prove that the conditional proposition p → s and its
contrapositive ~s → ~p are logically equivalent

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 Logical Equivalence: Examples
▪ Show that (p q) is logically equivalent to (p ∧ q) ∨
(~p ∧ ~q).
▪ Prove that the conditional proposition p → s and its
contrapositive ~s → ~p are logically equivalent
▪ Prove or disprove that ~(p → q) is logically
equivalent to p ∧ ~q.
▪ Verify the De Morgan’s law: [~(p v q) ≡ ~p ∧ ~q]
using truth table.

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 Logical Equivalence: Examples
▪ Prove or disprove that ~(p → q) is logically
equivalent to p ∧ ~q.

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 Logical Equivalence: Examples
▪ Show that (p q) is logically equivalent to (p ∧ q) ∨
(~p ∧ ~q).
▪ Prove that the conditional proposition p → s and its
contrapositive ~s → ~p are logically equivalent
▪ Prove or disprove that ~(p → q) is logically
equivalent to p ∧ ~q.
▪ Verify the De Morgan’s law: [~(p v q) ≡ ~p ∧ ~q]
using truth table.

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 Logical Equivalence: Examples
▪ Verify the De Morgan’s law: [~(p v q) ≡ ~p ∧ ~q]
using truth table.

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 Arguments
▪ Deductive or indirect reasoning is a process of reaching a
conclusion from one or more statements called hypothesis
(or hypotheses).
▪ An argument is a set of statements in which one of the
statements is called the conclusion and the rest comprise the
hypothesis.
▫ The propositions p1, p2…,pn, are called the
hypotheses (or premises) and;
▫ The proposition q is called the conclusion.

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 Arguments
▪ An argument is valid argument if all the premises p1 ^ p2 ^
… ^ p., are all true (1) and truth value of the conclusion q
must also be true (1); otherwise, the argument is invalid (or a
fallacy) if the truth value of all premises is true (1) but the
truth value of the conclusion is false (0). An argument is a
valid tautology.

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 Arguments: Example 1
▪ Consider the given set of premises and conclusions,
P→M
P
∴M

▪ Construct the truth table and determine whether the

given argument is valid.

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 Arguments: Example 1 [Solution]
▪ [(P → M) ^ P] → M [∴ This is a VALID argument.]

P M P→M (P → M) ^ P [(P → M) ^ P] → M

1 1 1 1 1

1 0 0 0 1

0 1 1 0 1

0 0 1 0 1
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 Arguments: Example 2
▪ The test validity of the following argument:
▫ If I study, then I will pass the test.
▫ I will pass the test.
▫ Therefore, I study.

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 Arguments: Try example 3

▪ Justify the validity of argument.

▫ If a man is a Bachelor, then he is Unhappy. If a man is
Unhappy, then he Dies young. He will not Die young.
Therefore, a man is not a Bachelor

▪ Note: Convert the propositions into symbols first.

▪ It is possible to integrate this given to the quiz 1.

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Application of Logic to Circuits

One of the most nonmathematical applications of symbolic logic was

seen in the master’s thesis of Claude Shannon in 1937. Shannon
showed how logic could be used as an aid in designing electrical
circuits. His work was immediately taken up by the designers of
computers. (Lial et. al., 2002)
Figure 4.9.2 shows two switches connected in
series; in such a circuit, current will flow only
when both switches are closed.

These series circuits correspond to the

conjunction of p ^ q. Remember that the
conjunction p ^ q is true only when both p and q
are true.

The disjunction of p v q can be found in Figure

4.9.3. The current flows if either p or q is closed
or both p and q are closed.

Figure 4.9.4 corresponds to the compound

statement (p v q) ^ ~q involving disjunction and
conjunction.
 Example. Write a logical statement representing the circuit.

Figure shows p and q and p and r are connected to each other in the series.
It is interpreted as p ^ q and p ^ r respectively.
These two conjunctions are connected parallel. Therefore it illustrated is a disjunction of
two conjunctions.
(p ^ q) v (p ^ r)
Figure shows p and q and p and ~q are connected to each other in the series.
It is interpreted as p ^ q and p ^ ~q respectively.
These two conjunctions are connected parallel. Therefore, it illustrated
is a disjunction of two conjunctions.

(p ^ q) v (p ^ ~q)
• q and ~r series connection
• q ^ ~r
• Parallel connection to p
• Therefore, p v (q ^ ~r)
• p v ~p
• p ^ (p v ~p)
• q v [p ^ (p v ~p)]
• rvq
• p ^ (r v q)
Draw circuits representing the following statements.
1. p and (q or not r)
q
p
~r

2. (p or q) and (not p or not r)

p ~p

q ~r
3. (not q and not p) or (not p or r)
~q ~p

~p

4. [(not p and not r) or not q] and (not p and r)

~p ~r
~p r
~q
 END OF
CHAPTER 1 PART 2
ANY QUESTION?
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Ma’am Steph
End of
Chapter 1
Any questions?

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