Fundamentals of Computer Second Generation (1955-1964):

Characteristics of Computers:  Technology: Transistors.

 Speed: Can perform millions of calculations per  Examples: IBM 7094, CDC 164.
second.  Pros: Smaller, faster, more reliable, used
 Accuracy: High accuracy; errors are usually due assembly language.
to human input.  Cons: Needed cooling systems, expensive,
 Reliability: Outputs are reliable as long as data specific use.
is accurate. Third Generation (1964-1975):
 Memory/Storage: Can store large data and  Technology: Integrated Circuits (ICs).
retrieve it easily.  Examples: IBM 370, UNIVAC 1108.
 Versatility: Can handle many tasks and accept  Pros: Smaller, more reliable, faster, energy-
various inputs/outputs. efficient.
 Automation: Operates automatically once  Cons: Sophisticated technology, air
programmed. conditioning needed.
 Diligence: Never gets distracted or tired. Fourth Generation (1975-Present):
 Convenience: Easy access and fast information  Technology: Microprocessors (LSI/VLSI).
retrieval.  Examples: Apple Macintosh, IBM PC.
 Flexibility: Useful for various goals and tasks.  Pros: Powerful, small, fast, cheap, supports
Goals of Computers: high-level languages.
1. Problem-solving techniques.  Cons: Requires advanced manufacturing
2. Analyze complex problems. technology.
3. Understand software engineering principles. Fifth Generation (Present & Beyond):
4. Acquire deep knowledge in computer science.  Technology: Artificial Intelligence (AI).
Computer Capabilities:  Example: IBM Watson.
 Directed by Programs: Computers need  Pros: AI-driven, can understand speech and
instructions to operate. reason like humans.
 Repetitive Operations: Can perform tasks Types of Computers
thousands of times without error. Based on Work:
 Speed: Can process data millions of times faster  Analog: Measures continuous data (e.g.,
than humans. temperature, voltage, speed). Examples:
 Accuracy: Can perform calculations to specified voltmeter, ammeter.
precision.  Digital: Processes discrete data using binary
 Flexibility: Can solve diverse problems step by digits (bits). Examples: desktop PCs,
step. workstations, tablets.
 No Intuition: Operates based on programming,  Hybrid: Combines analog and digital for
not intuition. specific tasks. Used in scientific calculations and
History of Computer Development: defense.
 Abacus: First mechanical calculator, developed Based on Purpose:
by Egyptians and refined by Chinese.  General Purpose: Can perform a variety of
 Napier’s Bones: Early tool for arithmetic tasks. Examples: personal computers, desktops,
operations, invented by John Napier. smartphones.
 Pascal’s Calculator: Early adding machine,  Special Purpose: Designed for specific tasks.
invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642. Examples: traffic control systems, video games,
 Leibniz Calculator: Could perform addition, weather forecasting.
subtraction, multiplication, and division, Based on Size and Performance:
introduced in 1646.  Microcomputer: Small, personal computers.
 Analytical Engine: Charles Babbage’s design Examples: IBM PCs, Apple Macs.
in 1837, the first concept for a general-purpose  Minicomputer: Medium-sized, supports up to
computer. 200 users. Examples: VAX series, Honeywell.
Generations of Computers:  Mainframe: Large, powerful, used by
First Generation (1942-1955): corporations/government for critical tasks.
 Technology: Vacuum tubes.  Supercomputer: Extremely fast, used for
 Examples: ENIAC, UNIVAC. complex calculations. Example: Tianhe-2,
 Pros: Enabled digital computing. PARAM Yuva II.
 Cons: Large, energy-consuming, slow, used Personal Computers:
machine language.
  Tower Model: Components stacked in a Output Unit:
cabinet.  Converts processed data into human-readable
 Desktop Model: Designed to fit on a desk, form.
monitor on top.  Delivers the final result to output devices (e.g.,
 Notebook/Ultrabook: Lightweight, portable, monitors, printers).
similar to PCs. Storage Unit:
 Laptop: Portable computers, can be used on  Stores data, instructions, and intermediate
your lap. results before and after processing.
 Subnotebook: Smaller and lighter than laptops,  Provides space for both input data and final
with smaller keyboards. outputs.
 Hand-held: Very portable, used for basic tasks. Central Processing Unit (CPU):
 Palmtop: Fits in your palm, limited use for  The "brain" of the computer, responsible for
basic tasks. executing instructions and controlling
 PDA: Personal Digital Assistants, use pens for operations.
input and voice recognition. o Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):
 Smartphones: Mobile phones with PC Performs calculations and comparisons.
functions, internet connectivity. o Control Unit (CU): Directs and
Applications of Computers controls the operations of other
In Education: components and devices.
 Effective Classrooms: Multimedia Registers:
presentations enhance learning.  Small, fast storage locations inside the CPU for
 Online Education: Offers new learning holding data, instructions, or addresses.
methods beyond traditional classrooms. Input Devices:
 Research: Helps students access vast  Devices used to enter data into the computer
information quickly for research. system.
In Offices: 1. Keyboard: Allows users to input text and
 Document Management: Includes word commands.
processing, desktop publishing, and 2. Mouse: A pointing device for moving the cursor
spreadsheets. on the screen.
 Office Support Systems: Coordinates 3. Joystick: A pointing device used in gaming or
workgroup activities and sharing (e.g., CAD applications.
Groupware). 4. Light Pen: A pen-like device used to select or
In Medicine: draw on the screen.
 Hospital Administration: Manages accounts, 5. Track Ball: A stationary pointing device found
payroll, and inventory. on laptops.
 Medical History: Stores patient histories for 6. Scanner: Converts physical documents or
easy access. images into digital form.
 Monitoring Systems: Tracks patients’ vital 7. Touch Screen: A screen that can detect and
signs, especially in ICU and during surgeries. respond to touch or gestures.
 Life Support: Devices assist disabled 8. Digitizer/Graphics Tablet: Converts analog
individuals (e.g., hearing aids). signals into digital data for image creation.
 Disease Diagnosis: Uses software for storing 9. MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Reader):
symptoms and diagnosing illnesses. Reads magnetic ink printed on cheques, used in
In Defence: banking.
 Missile Tracking: Helps target and destroy 10. OCR (Optical Character Reader): Scans
incoming missiles. printed text and converts it into machine-
 Asset Tracking: Maintains situational readable format.
awareness and communication systems. 11. OMR (Optical Mark Recognition): Captures
 Logistics: Coordinates equipment transport and data from marked forms like surveys or tests.
distribution. 12. Smart Card Reader: Reads data from smart
 Combat Systems: Used in tanks, planes, and cards used for various applications (e.g., medical
ships for targeting and diagnostics. records, digital cash).
 Security Functions: Manages crypto systems 13. Bar Code Reader: Scans and decodes bar codes
and security networks. into machine-readable data.
14. Microphone: Converts sound into an electrical
Components of a Computer System signal for voice input.
 15. Webcam: Streams live video to a computer,  Clearing Cache: Clear temporary files, cookies,
used for video calls, recording, or surveillance. and internet history to free up space.
Output Device  Automatic Updates: Enable automatic software
An output device communicates processed data and updates for security patches.
converts it into a human-readable form.  Virus Protection: Install antivirus software to
Common output devices include: protect against harmful attacks.
1. Monitors:  Anti-Malware Software: Protect against
o The main output device, displaying spyware and adware that can compromise
images made of pixels. privacy.
o Types:  Firewall Setup: Use firewalls to block online
 CRT Monitor: Uses small threats.
picture elements (pixels); larger Physical Cleaning
size, higher power consumption. Clean your computer to maintain hygiene and
 Flat-Panel Monitor: Smaller, functionality:
lighter, lower power; includes  Use a soft cloth to clean keyboards, screens, and
emissive (LED, Plasma) and the mouse.
non-emissive (LCD) types.  Deal with spills quickly by turning off and
 3-D Monitors: Provide depth drying the keyboard.
perception, used in virtual
reality.
2. Printers: Memory Organization
o Output device used to print information Instruction Cycle
on paper. The instruction cycle is the process a computer follows
o Types: to execute an instruction:
 Impact Printers: Print by 1. Fetch the instruction from memory.
striking a ribbon (e.g., Dot 2. Decode the instruction.
Matrix, Daisy Wheel). 3. Execute the instruction.
 Non-Impact Printers: Print 4. Store the result in memory.
without touching the paper (e.g., Instruction Format
Laser, Inkjet). Computers understand instructions in machine language,
 Laser Printers: Use laser light composed of 0s and 1s. Each instruction has:
to form images.  Op-code: Specifies the action to be performed.
 Inkjet Printers: Use ink  Operand: Defines the parameters for the action.
droplets for high-quality prints. Memory Hierarchy
3. Headphones: Memory hierarchy is designed to optimize memory
o Device to listen to audio privately via a access speed. It includes:
computer’s output. 1. Registers in the CPU
4. Speakers: 2. Cache
o Hardware that outputs sound from the 3. Main Memory
computer's sound card. 4. Disk Cache
5. Projector: 5. Magnetic Disk
o Displays computer images on a larger 6. Optical Disk
surface for group viewing. 7. Magnetic Tape
Computer Maintenance Each level is faster and smaller than the one
Ensure your computer runs smoothly by protecting it below.
from viruses, overload, or hackers. Regular maintenance Memory Organization
prevents freezing, crashing, and data loss. Memory consists of small units called cells, each with a
 Backing Up: Regularly back up important files unique address. The CPU has registers to temporarily
(e.g., photos, documents) using USB drives or store data during program execution. Types of registers
online backup services. include:
 Deleting Files: Remove unnecessary files to  GPR (General Purpose Register)
improve performance using disk cleanup tools.  Accumulator (A): Stores intermediate results of
 Scanning: Scan the hard drive regularly for arithmetic and logical operations.
errors affecting performance.  Special Purpose Registers: Includes Program
 Defragmenting: Rearrange fragmented files to Counter (PC), Stack Pointer (SP), Instruction
speed up access and improve performance.
 Register (IR), Memory Address Register storage can be internal or external and is primarily used
(MAR), and Memory Data Register (MDR). to save data permanently or for extended periods.
Types of Memory Types of Secondary Storage Devices:
1. Cache Memory 1. Magnetic Disks
A small, fast memory located near the CPU, o Function: Magnetic disks serve two
which speeds up data access. It holds frequently purposes in computer systems: they
used data and programs. provide long-term storage for files and
o Advantages: Faster, reduces access also act as a backing store for virtual
time. memory.
o Disadvantages: Limited capacity, o Structure: A magnetic disk is made up
expensive. of platters that rotate at high speeds.
2. Primary Memory (Main Memory) These platters are coated with magnetic
Holds data and instructions currently in use, but material for data storage. Each platter
data is lost when power is off. It is typically has multiple tracks, and each track is
divided into RAM and ROM. divided into sectors. Data can be read or
o RAM (Random Access Memory): written in a sector.
Volatile, stores data being processed. o Example: Hard disk drives (HDD).
o ROM (Read-Only Memory): Non- 2. Optical Disks
volatile, stores essential startup o Types: CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs
instructions. are examples of optical storage. Data is
Types of RAM: read or written using a laser.
o SRAM (Static RAM): Faster but larger o Types of CDs and DVDs:
and more expensive.  CD-R: Write once, read many.
o DRAM (Dynamic RAM): Slower,  CD-RW: Rewritable.
smaller, and less expensive.  DVD-R: Write once, read
Types of ROM: many.
o PROM: Programmable once; cannot be  DVD-RW: Rewritable.
altered. o Blu-ray: A newer optical disc format
o EPROM: Erasable with ultraviolet that supports high-definition video
light, reprogrammable. storage and can store significantly more
o EEPROM: Erasable and data than DVDs.
reprogrammable electrically. 3. Magnetic Tape
3. Flash Memory o Magnetic tape is a strip of plastic coated
A type of non-volatile memory used for storing with a magnetic material, used for data
data in devices like USB drives and SSDs. storage. It has a slower read/write speed
Unlike ROM, it can be written to and erased but is often used for backup and archival
repeatedly without power. purposes due to its lower cost and high
4. Virtual Memory capacity.
Allows larger programs to run by using part of o Example: Tape cassette.
the hard drive as additional memory when 4. Floppy Diskette
physical memory is full. o An outdated storage device with limited
5. Secondary Memory (Auxiliary Memory) capacity, once used to store and transfer
Used for permanent data storage, larger and data.
slower than primary memory. Examples include o Typically 3.5 inches in size with
hard drives, CDs, and DVDs. It is non-volatile capacities ranging from 1.44 MB.
and typically accessed through input/output 5. Hard Drive (HDD)
routines. o A primary storage medium used to
Characteristics: Slower than primary memory, permanently store large amounts of data.
used for backup storage, and permanent storage It consists of rotating magnetic platters
even without power. inside an air-sealed casing.
Storage Devices o Capacity: Up to several terabytes (TB).
Storage devices, also known as storage media, are 6. USB Flash Drive / Jump Drive
essential hardware components used to store data and o A small, portable storage device that
information. There are two main categories of storage connects via a USB port. Flash drives
devices: primary storage (e.g., RAM) and secondary are popular for transferring and storing
storage (e.g., hard drives, optical discs). Secondary
 data due to their small size and ease of Unit Abbreviation Approximate Actual
use. bytes
o Capacity: Ranges from 1 GB to 512 Zettabyte ZB 1 sextillion bytes 1024 EB
GB. Yottabyte YB 1 septillion bytes 1024 ZB
7. Memory Card
Brontobyte BB 1 octillion bytes 1024 YB
o Used primarily in digital cameras,
Notes on Data Units:
smartphones, and other portable devices.
 1 Bit = Binary digit (0 or 1)
Examples include microSD cards and
 1 Nibble = 4 bits
SD cards.
 8 bits = 1 Byte = 2 Nibbles
o Capacity: Varies, but generally between
This system of data units helps quantify and describe the
16 GB and 512 GB.
size of data, storage devices, and their respective
8. Memory Stick
capacities.
o A proprietary flash memory format
developed by Sony, used in Sony
devices such as digital cameras and
Computer Software
camcorders.
o Capacity: Typically ranges from 4 MB
Computer software consists of programs that guide
to 256 GB, but can go up to 2 TB in the
hardware in performing tasks. It’s the intangible
future.
component, unlike hardware, which is physical. Both
9. Zip Diskette
hardware and software work together and rely on each
o A high-capacity removable storage disk,
other.
once popular for its higher storage than
Types of Software
floppy disks but now obsolete.
Computer software is categorized into two types:
10. Blue-Ray Disc
(a) System Software
o An optical disc format designed to store
(b) Application Software
high-definition video and large amounts
System Software
of data. A single-layer Blu-ray disc can
System software manages hardware and facilitates
hold up to 25 GB, while dual-layer discs
interaction with other software. Operating systems (OS)
can hold 50 GB.
and device drivers are examples.
o Capacity: Up to 50 GB (dual-layer).
Operating System (OS)
Secondary Memory Device and their Storage Method An OS acts as an intermediary between users and
and Capacity hardware, essential for running application programs.
Storage Examples include UNIX, MS-DOS, and Windows.
Device Capacity
Method Functions of an OS
Floppy Disk (5.25 1. Booting the computer
Magnetic 1.2 MB
inch) 2. Managing peripheral devices (mouse, keyboard)
Hard Disk Magnetic Up to 1 TB 3. Providing a user interface (command line or
640 MB to 680 GUI)
CD-ROM Optical
MB 4. Handling system resources like memory and
DVD-ROM Optical 4.7 GB to 17 GB CPU time
Pen-Drive Solid State 1 GB to 512 GB 5. Managing files (creation, deletion, storage)
Magnetic Tape Magnetic Up to 1 TB Booting
Data Units and Conversion Starting or restarting a computer is called booting. A
cold boot is from a complete shutdown; a warm boot is
Unit Abbreviation Approximate Actual
from within the OS.
Bit b 0 or 1 Basic Tasks
Byte B 8 bits 8 bits The OS manages peripheral devices automatically (plug
1024 and play).
Kilobyte KB 1000 bytes
bytes User Interface
Megabyte MB 1 million bytes 1024 KB OS provides either a command line or graphical user
Gigabyte GB 1 billion bytes 1024 MB interface (GUI) for user interaction.
Terabyte TB 1 trillion bytes 1024 GB System Resource Management
1 quadrillion The OS allocates CPU time, memory, and storage to
Petabyte PB 1024 TB programs.
bytes
Exabyte EB 1 quintillion 1024 PB
File Management  Pointing Device: Devices like a mouse or
The OS organizes files on storage devices, using file trackball to interact with the GUI.
systems like FAT and NTFS.  Icons: Small pictures that represent commands,
Types of OS files, or windows.
1. Single-User, Single-Task OS: One user, one  Desktop: The screen area where icons are
task at a time (e.g., Palm OS). grouped.
2. Single-User, Multi-Tasking OS: One user,  Windows: Divides the screen into multiple areas
multiple tasks (e.g., Windows, macOS). to run different programs or display files.
3. Multi-User OS: Multiple users sharing  Menus: Lists of options for executing
resources (e.g., UNIX, VMS). commands.
4. Real-Time OS: Quick response times for time- MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System)
sensitive tasks (e.g., hard or soft real-time MS-DOS is a non-graphical, command-line operating
systems). system introduced in 1981. It allows file manipulation
5. Time-Sharing OS: Multiple users sharing CPU through commands.
time (e.g., Unix). MS-DOS Commands
6. Distributed OS: Multiple processors working Commands like dir, cd, cls, copy, and format are
on different tasks (e.g., cloud systems). used to manage files, directories, and system settings.
7. Network OS: Manages network resources (e.g., Utility Software
Windows Server). Utility software helps maintain and protect a computer
8. Stand-Alone OS: Used on personal computers system, managing functions like virus protection, disk
(e.g., Windows, macOS, Linux). cleanup, and defragmentation.
9. Embedded OS: Limited functionality for Functions of System Utility
specific devices (e.g., GPS, ATMs).  Disk Cleanup: Removes unnecessary files to
10. Mobile OS: Designed for mobile devices (e.g., free up space.
iOS, Android).  Disk Defragmentation: Rearranges data
File Systems fragments to improve file access.
 FAT: Records clusters used or unused, tracks  System Restore: Reverts the system to a
file locations. previous state.
 NTFS: Allows file permissions and better data  Disk Compression: Compresses files to free up
management. space.
Examples of OS  Antivirus: Protects the system from viruses.
 Microsoft Windows: GUI-based, used widely. Application Software
 Mac OS: Developed by Apple, known for its Application software (apps) helps users perform tasks
GUI. like word processing or database management.
 Linux: Open-source, customizable. Examples include MS Word and Excel.
BIOS Difference Between System and Application Software
The BIOS initializes hardware and manages data flow  System Software: Operates the computer,
between the OS and attached devices. enabling it to function.
Assembler  Application Software: Helps users complete
Converts basic instructions into a format usable by the specific tasks.
processor. Types of Application Software
Device Driver  Retail Software: Sold in stores with packaging.
Translates general OS instructions for specific devices  OEM Software: Bundled with hardware and
(e.g., keyboard, mouse). sold in bulk.
Buffering  Shareware: Free to try for a limited time.
Preloads data into memory to prevent disruptions in  Adware: Free but includes advertisements.
streaming.  Spyware: Free but collects user data.
Spooling  Freeware: Free for personal use.
Buffers data for devices like printers to optimize Examples of Application Software
processing.  Word Processing: For creating, editing, and
GUI (Graphical User Interface) printing documents (e.g., MS Word).
GUI uses graphics to simplify program use.  Spreadsheet: For managing data in grids and
Basic Components of a GUI performing calculations (e.g., Excel).
 Pointer: A symbol used to select objects (e.g.,  Presentation Graphics: For creating slide
arrow or I-beam). shows (e.g., PowerPoint).
  Multimedia Authoring: For creating Number Conversion:
presentations with audio and video.  Binary to Decimal: Multiply binary digits by
 Database Software: For organizing and powers of 2.
managing data (e.g., Access).  Decimal to Binary: Use division by 2, tracking
 Desktop Publishing: For designing remainders.
sophisticated documents (e.g., InDesign).  Decimal to Octal: Divide by 8.
Videoconferencing  Octal to Binary: Replace octal digits with 3-bit
A meeting where participants use a network or the binary.
Internet to share audio and video.  Binary to Hexadecimal: Group binary in 4-bit
Programming Language: A set of commands and chunks.
syntax used to create software.  Hexadecimal to Binary: Convert each hex digit
High-Level Languages: Used by programmers to write to 4-bit binary.
code, which is compiled into low-level language for Operating System Concepts:
execution.  Kernel: Core part of the OS that manages
Low-Level Languages: Close to machine code and hardware and resources.
understood by computer hardware. Includes:  Shell: User interface for command input.
 Machine Language: Directly executed by CPU  Fork: Creates a new process by duplicating the
in binary (0s and 1s). calling process.
 Assembly Language: Symbolic code used to  Thread: Smallest unit of execution within a
represent machine instructions. process.
High-Level Language: Simplifies programming by  Deadlock: Occurs when two processes wait
being closer to human language, eliminating the need for indefinitely for each other.
knowledge of internal workings. For example, Fortran II  Multiprocessing: Use of multiple CPUs in one
(1958). system.
Assembler: Converts assembly language to machine
code. Computer Hardware
Compiler: Translates source code into another Computer hardware refers to the physical parts of a
language, reporting syntax and semantic errors. computer, including the case, monitor, keyboard, and
Interpreter: Translates and executes high-level code mouse, as well as internal components like the hard
line by line. drive, motherboard, and video card. These elements are
Loader: Loads programs into memory only when essential and found in all computers, though they vary in
needed, improving memory utilization. cost, speed, and quality.
Linker: Combines code and data into a single Main components:
executable.  Form Factor: The computer's physical shape
Debugging: Identifying and fixing errors in code or (desktop, laptop, tablet, etc.).
hardware.  Processor: The 'brain' of the computer that
Popular High-Level Languages: carries out tasks.
 COBOL (1959): Business applications.  Data Storage: Stores data, programs, and files
 FORTRAN (1957): Engineering and scientific. for the computer.
 PASCAL (1972): General use and teaching.  Operating System: Software that runs the
 C & C++ (1972/1983): General purpose. computer (e.g., Windows, macOS, Linux).
 LISP (1958): Artificial Intelligence.  Monitor: The screen used to view and interact
 JAVA (1995): Internet programming. with the computer.
Programming Language Generations: Key components:
 1GL: Machine language (binary). 1. Processor (CPU): Executes tasks and
 2GL: Assembly language. determines speed. Its performance depends on
 3GL: High-level languages (C, C++, Java). clock speed, cores, and chip generation.
 4GL: Closer to human language (domain- o Clock Speed: Measured in GHz; higher
specific). speeds mean faster performance.
 5GL: Visual or graphical interface for o Cores: Multiple cores allow for faster
development. multitasking.
Number Systems: o Chip Generation: Newer chips are
 Binary (Base 2): Digits 0, 1; used in computing. often faster despite lower clock speeds
 Octal (Base 8): Digits 0-7. (e.g., Intel i7 vs. Core 2 Duo).
 Decimal (Base 10): Digits 0-9.
 Hexadecimal (Base 16): Digits 0-9, A-F.
 2. Motherboard: Connects all components and typically managed by a Database
determines expansion options and computer Administrator (DBA).
size. Popular DBMS:
3. Case: Holds components together, affecting 1. Microsoft Access: Developed by Microsoft,
size, noise, and appearance. stores data in the Access Jet Database Engine
4. RAM: Short-term memory that helps with quick format, and allows linking or importing from
data access and running multiple programs. other databases.
5. Graphics Card (GPU): Handles visual output; 2. MySQL: An open-source DBMS popular on the
necessary for high-definition videos and 3D web, known for its speed, reliability, and
gaming. flexibility.
6. Hard Drive: Long-term storage for system data, 3. Oracle: A powerful relational DBMS developed
documents, and files. by Oracle Corporation, known for its robust
7. Optical Drive: Reads CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray features and security.
discs. 4. Microsoft SQL Server: A relational database
8. Power Supply: Directs power to components; server from Microsoft used for storing and
larger systems require higher wattage. retrieving data across various applications.
9. Sound Card: Manages audio output/input for Components of a Database System:
multimedia. 1. Users: Different types of users, including DB
10. Ports: Interfaces for connecting external devices administrators, system developers, and end
(e.g., USB, serial, parallel). users.
o Parallel Ports: High-speed data 2. Database Applications: These can be personal,
transfer, typically for printers. departmental, enterprise-level, or internal.
o Serial Ports: Slower data transfer for 3. DBMS Software: Tools for defining, creating,
modems and mice. and managing database access (e.g., MySQL,
o USB Ports: Easy connection for various Oracle).
devices like mice and printers. 4. Database: The structured collection of data.
o Firewire: Connects multimedia devices Database Models:
like video cameras with a 400 Mb/s 1. Hierarchical Model: Data is organized in a
transfer rate. tree-like structure, with each entity having one
11. Input/Output Peripherals: External devices for parent but potentially multiple children.
input (keyboard, mouse) or output (monitor, 2. Network Model: Data is represented as a graph,
printer). with entities accessible via multiple paths.
12. Expansion Card: Adds extra functionality, 3. Relational Model: Data is organized into tables
inserted into the motherboard’s expansion slots. (relations), and relationships between tables are
defined.
Database Management System Entity-Relationship (E-R) Model:
The E-R model helps design databases conceptually by
Overview of Database Management Systems (DBMS) representing real-world data as entities and their
A Database Management System (DBMS) is relationships. The components are:
specialized software designed to create and manage  Entities: Objects or concepts with independent
databases. It acts as an interface between users and existence (e.g., person, place, event).
databases, facilitating efficient data handling. A DBMS  Attributes: Properties or characteristics of
organizes data in tables, where each table consists of entities (e.g., name, age).
rows (records) and columns (fields).  Relationships: Connections between entities
Key DBMS Processes: (e.g., a student enrolling in a course).
1. Data Definition: Creating, modifying, or Symbols used in E-R diagrams:
deleting data structures (e.g., tables).  Entity: Represented by a rectangle.
2. Data Update: Inserting, deleting, or modifying  Attribute: Represented by an oval.
records in tables.  Relationship: Represented by a diamond.
3. Data Retrieval: Extracting information from the  Link: Represented by a line.
database via queries for reporting or other Entity Sets:
business applications.  Entity Set: A collection of similar entities (e.g.,
4. Administration: Tasks like ensuring data all employees).
security, maintaining data integrity, backups,  Weak Entity Set: An entity set that does not
disaster recovery, and user access management, have a primary key on its own and relies on a
strong entity set for identification. Depicted with
 double rectangles and a discriminator (partial o Derived: Virtual, computed from other
key). data, represented by a dashed oval.
 Strong Entity Set: An entity set with its own  Data Redundancy: Repeated data in multiple
primary key, depicted with a rectangle. It tables, leading to inefficiency.
uniquely identifies its members.  Data Integrity: Ensures accuracy and
Comparison of Strong vs. Weak Entity Sets: consistency of data.
 Strong Entity Set:  Consistency: Ensures data is valid according to
o Has its own primary key. defined rules, preventing invalid data entries.
o Represented by a rectangle.  Tuple: A record or row in a table.
o Relationship between strong entities is  Null: Represents unknown or missing data.
shown with a single diamond symbol. Cannot be used in primary keys.
o The line connecting strong entity sets to Types of Keys:
relationships is a single line. 1. Candidate Key: Unique and minimal; no
 Weak Entity Set: unnecessary columns.
o Lacks a primary key and relies on a 2. Composite Key: A combination of multiple
strong entity's key. attributes.
o Represented by double rectangles. 3. Primary Key: Chosen candidate key to
o Relationship between a strong and weak uniquely identify records (e.g., EID for
entity set is represented by a double Employee).
diamond symbol (identifying 4. Foreign Key: References the primary key of
relationship). another table (e.g., DepartmentID in
o The line connecting a weak entity set to Employee table).
the identifying relationship is double. 5. Secondary Key: Used for retrieval purposes
Example: (e.g., phone number).
 Payment Entity Set: 6. Unique Key: Ensures attribute uniqueness in
o Strong: It may have attributes like rows.
payment_number, payment_date, DBMS Types and Functions:
and payment_amount. The primary  RDBMS: Uses relational model with tables and
key can be a combination of relationships. It’s flexible and scalable.
 Normalization: Organizing data to reduce
loan_number and
redundancy and improve integrity.
payment_number.
DBMS Commands:
o Weak: A payment related to a loan may
1. DDL (Data Definition Language):
not have a unique identifier by itself and o CREATE: Create database objects.
would depend on the loan_number
o ALTER: Modify database structure.
from a related strong entity like Loan.
o DROP: Delete objects.
It would have a discriminator (e.g.,
o TRUNCATE: Remove all records from a
payment_number).
table.
Primary vs. Weak Entities:
o COMMENT: Add comments.
 Strong Entity: An entity set that has a primary
o RENAME: Rename objects.
key and doesn't depend on other entities for
identification. 2. DML (Data Manipulation Language):
 Weak Entity: An entity set that doesn't have o SELECT: Retrieve data.
enough attributes to form a primary key and o INSERT: Add data.
relies on a strong entity to form a composite key. o UPDATE: Modify data.
Key Terms in DBMS: o DELETE: Remove records.
 Value Set/Domain: Set of possible values for an o MERGE: Insert or update data.
attribute in an entity (e.g., employee name can o EXPLAIN PLAN: View data access
have string or integer values). path.
 Entity Set: Collection of similar entities (e.g., o LOCK TABLE: Control data
students, courses). Represented by a rectangle. concurrency.
 Attribute: Describes aspects of an entity (e.g., 3. DCL (Data Control Language):
name, max enrollment). Represented by an oval. o GRANT: Give user access privileges.
It can be: o REVOKE: Remove user access
o Multi-valued: Double oval. privileges.
o Composite: Structured, with sub-ovals. 4. TCL (Transaction Control Language):
 o COMMIT: Save transaction changes. OSI Model TCP/IP Model
o SAVEPOINT: Set a rollback point. interfaces, protocols not clearly separated
o ROLLBACK: Undo changes since last Ethernet and LAN Technologies
commit. 1. Ethernet:
o SET TRANSACTION: Adjust o A common LAN technology.
transaction settings. o Uses CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access/Collision Detection) to
Computer Networks manage data collisions.
Types of Computer Networks 2. Fast Ethernet:
1. Personal Area Network (PAN): o Speeds up to 100 Mbps.
o Smallest network, personal to a user o Standard: 100BASE-T using Cat-5
(e.g., Bluetooth devices). cables.
o Range: Up to 10 meters. 3. Giga-Ethernet:
2. Local Area Network (LAN): o Speeds up to 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps).
o Spans within a building, like offices, o Standard: IEEE 802.3ab for UTP,
schools. 802.3ah for fiber.
o Range: Covers a few meters to 16 4. Virtual LAN (VLAN):
million devices. o Segments a LAN into multiple broadcast
o Speed: 10-100 Mbps. domains, isolating traffic between
o Technologies: Ethernet, Token-ring. different VLANs.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Network Topologies
o Spans a city (e.g., cable TV network). 1. Point-to-Point:
o Links LANs within a city. o Two devices connected directly via a
o High-speed backbone, often fiber optics. single cable.
4. Wide Area Network (WAN): 2. Bus Topology:
o Spans large geographical areas, e.g., o All devices share a single
provinces, countries. communication line.
o Examples: Telecommunication 3. Ring Topology:
networks, Internet. o Devices form a circular connection; data
o Uses: ATM, Frame Relay, SONET. travels in one direction via a token.
5. Virtual Private Network (VPN): 4. Star Topology:
o Uses public networks (e.g., Internet) to o All devices are connected to a central
connect private networks securely. hub or switch.
o Employs encryption for security. 5. Mesh Topology:
6. Internetwork: o Each device is connected to multiple
o Network of networks (e.g., the Internet). other devices.
o Uses IP protocol (IPv4, migrating to o Full Mesh: Every device connected to
IPv6). every other device.
o Enables global connectivity and sharing o Partial Mesh: Some devices connected
of information. to each other.
OSI vs. TCP/IP Models 6. Tree Topology:
OSI Model TCP/IP Model o Hierarchical structure, combining bus
and star topologies.
7 layers (Application, 4 layers (Application,
7. Daisy Chain:
Presentation, etc.) Transport, etc.)
o Devices connected in a linear fashion,
Focus on specific protocols,
Protocol-based model similar to a ring.
not flexible
8. Hybrid Topology:
Transport layer o Combination of multiple topologies
No guarantee of packet
guarantees packet (e.g., Star + Bus).
delivery
delivery Network Devices and Functions
Has separate presentation No separate presentation 1. Network Repeater:
layer layer o A device that amplifies and regenerates
General model for any Limited to specific signals to extend the reach of data
application applications transmissions over long distances,
Defines services, Services, interfaces, protocols ensuring signal integrity is maintained.
 o Commonly used for Ethernet and Wi-Fi o The CSU provides signal conversion
networks, but in Wi-Fi, access points act and electrical protection, while the DSU
as repeaters in "Repeater Mode." manages timing and line control,
2. Network Hub: ensuring data is formatted properly for
o A simple device that connects multiple T1 lines.
devices in a network, allowing them to 8. Modem:
communicate. o A device that modulates digital signals
o It broadcasts data to all devices on the to analog for transmission over
network, meaning all devices share the telephone lines and demodulates them
same bandwidth, and collisions may back into digital signals on the receiving
occur. end.
o Hubs are not as efficient as switches but o It allows computers to connect to the
are still commonly used in small Internet through various services such as
networks. DSL, cable, or satellite.
3. Network Bridge: 9. Ethernet Card (NIC):
o Operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer o A network interface card that enables
2) to divide larger networks into computers to connect to an Ethernet
segments and reduce traffic by network.
forwarding data only when necessary. o It allows computers to send and receive
o It works by using hardware MAC data packets over the network, either via
addresses to determine the destination of wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi)
data packets, rejecting unnecessary connections.
packets to manage traffic. Types of Signals
4. Network Router: 1. Digital Signals:
o A device that connects different o Represent discrete data as a sequence of
networks, such as connecting LANs to voltage pulses. Digital signals are used
WANs or the Internet. in computers and other digital devices
o Operates at the Network Layer (Layer 3) for clear, noise-resistant communication.
of the OSI model and decides the best 2. Analog Signals:
path for data to reach its destination o Continuous signals that represent data in
based on routing tables. the form of continuous electromagnetic
o Routers can use static or dynamic waves (e.g., audio or voice signals).
routing protocols to manage traffic. o Analog signals are susceptible to noise,
5. Network Switch: but are commonly used for long-
o A more advanced version of a hub, distance communication (e.g., radio,
operating at the Data Link Layer (Layer television).
2), capable of inspecting incoming data Modes of Communication Operation
packets and forwarding them to the 1. Simplex Operation:
correct destination device. o Data flows in one direction only, like a
o Helps to minimize network collisions one-way street (e.g., TV broadcast).
and offers better performance by only 2. Half-Duplex Operation:
sending data to the intended recipient, o Data can flow in both directions but not
conserving bandwidth. simultaneously (e.g., walkie-talkies).
6. Gateway: 3. Full-Duplex Operation:
o A device that acts as a translator or o Data flows in both directions
protocol converter, connecting two simultaneously, allowing for continuous
different networks using different two-way communication (e.g.,
protocols. telephones, modern internet
o It converts data packets from one format communication).
to another, enabling communication Communication Mediums
between systems with incompatible 1. Guided Media:
protocols. o Physical cables or wires through which
7. CSU/DSU (Channel Service Unit/Data signals travel. Examples include:
Service Unit):  UTP (Unshielded Twisted
o Converts digital data frames between Pair): Common in Ethernet
LANs and WANs. networks.
  Coaxial Cable: Used for cable o Narrowband PLC: Low-speed (up to
TV and some older Ethernet 100kbps), long-range.
networks. o Broadband PLC: High-speed (up to
 Fiber Optic Cable: Provides 100Mbps), shorter range.
high-speed communication with 4. Fiber Optics: Uses light to transmit data.
minimal signal loss. o Single Mode: Carries one light beam.
2. Unguided Media: o Multimode: Carries multiple beams.
o Wireless communication where signals Offers high-speed, long-range
travel through air or space. Examples transmission unaffected by
include: electromagnetic interference.
 Wi-Fi: Wireless communication Wireless Communication Technologies:
for LANs. 1. Wireless Transmission: Uses airwaves for data
 Bluetooth: Short-range transmission, received by antennas. Covers
communication for PANs. various frequencies.
 Satellite Communication: 2. Radio Transmission: Radio waves penetrate
Long-range communication for walls and travel long distances. Frequencies
WANs. range from 3 Hz to 300 GHz.
Factors Affecting Data Transmission 3. Microwave Transmission: High-frequency
1. Channel Capacity: waves travel in straight lines; requires line-of-
o Refers to the maximum data rate a sight. Sensitive to weather conditions.
transmission medium can support. It's 4. Infrared Transmission: Used for short-range
influenced by factors such as bandwidth communication (e.g., remote controls). Travels
and signal quality. in straight lines and doesn't pass through
2. Multiplexing: obstacles.
o A technique that allows multiple data 5. Light Transmission: Uses lasers for high-
streams to be sent over a single medium. speed, long-distance communication. Requires
This helps maximize the usage of the line-of-sight.
transmission channel. A Multiplexer is Network Models:
used to combine signals, and a De- 1. Client-Server Model: Servers provide resources
multiplexer is used to separate them at to client devices (e.g., file servers, print servers).
the receiving end. Servers handle requests from clients.
3. Switching: 2. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Model: Each node (device)
o Refers to how data is routed through the has equal responsibilities, and computing power
network from source to destination. is distributed across the network.
Networks rely on switches and routers
to store, analyze, and forward data. Basics of Internet Technology:
4. Throughput: The Internet is a global network of interconnected
o The actual amount of data successfully computers that use TCP/IP protocols to link billions of
transmitted over a network within a devices worldwide. It includes private, public, academic,
specific period. It's a measure of the business, and government networks connected through
network's effective performance, which various electronic, wireless, and optical technologies.
can be affected by congestion, The Internet provides access to a vast range of services
interference, or hardware limitations. like the World Wide Web (WWW), email infrastructure,
Wired Communication Technologies: file sharing, and telephony.
1. Ethernet Cable (Twisted Pair): Two copper Working of the Internet:
wires twisted to reduce noise. Used for short- The Internet plays a crucial role in daily life, enabling
distance communication (e.g., LAN). various activities like:
o STP: Shielded for noise protection. 1. Communication: Email, social media, and
o UTP: Common in networks, available in video conferencing make it easier to stay
categories like Cat-5, Cat-6. connected with people worldwide.
2. Coaxial Cable: Central copper wire surrounded 2. Research: The Internet offers instant access to a
by insulation and a second shielding layer. wealth of information and research materials,
Handles higher frequencies, used for cable TV making research faster and more accessible.
and Ethernet. 3. Education: Online resources, tutorials, and e-
3. Power Lines (PLC): Uses power cables for data books make learning more convenient and
transmission. interactive.
 4. Financial Transactions: Online banking and e- o Layer 7 - Application: Provides
commerce platforms enable secure and quick network services like email, file transfer,
financial transactions. etc.
5. Real-Time Updates: The Internet provides real- 3. TCP/IP Model: A simplified four-layer model:
time information on business, sports, politics, o Layer 1 - Link: Defines hardware and
and entertainment. device drivers.
Internet Connections: o Layer 2 - Network: Deals with
There are different ways to connect to the Internet: communication, addressing, and routing.
1. Dial-Up: Uses a phone line to connect to the o Layer 3 - Transport: Manages
Internet, but prevents phone calls while online. communication between programs
2. Broadband: High-speed connection, often (TCP/UDP).
through cable or telephone lines. Includes: o Layer 4 - Application: Includes user-
o DSL: Uses existing telephone lines for level services like FTP, DNS, and email.
simultaneous internet and voice service. IP Addresses:
o Cable: High-speed Internet through a An IP address is a unique identifier for devices on the
cable modem. Internet. It consists of four sets of numbers (octets)
3. Wireless Connections: Includes Wi-Fi, mobile ranging from 0 to 255, separated by periods. Example:
internet, hotspots, satellite, and ISDN 192.168.1.1. Characteristics of IP addresses:
connections:  Unique: Each device has its own distinct IP
o Wi-Fi: Wireless Internet using radio address.
frequencies.  Routing: Used to route data between devices on
o Mobile: Internet access via cell phones different networks.
and smartphones. File Transfer Protocol (FTP):
o Hotspots: Public places offering Wi-Fi FTP is a network protocol for transferring files over
Internet access. TCP-based networks, using client-server architecture
o Satellite: For areas without broadband with control and data connections. Users can
infrastructure. authenticate via username and password or connect
o ISDN: Digital network for data, voice, anonymously. FTPS adds SSL/TLS security, while
and video transmission. SFTP is an alternative.
Internet Connection Protocols: Hypertext
A protocol defines rules for communication between Text with links to other documents that users can select
devices. Key protocols include: to retrieve more content.
1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Hyperlinks
Ensures reliable data transmission, manages data Elements linking to another part of the same or different
flow, and handles retransmission of lost packets. document.
It works with IP (Internet Protocol) to define HTTP
how data packets are sent across networks. HTTP is the protocol used by the World Wide Web to
2. ISO/OSI Model: A seven-layer model that format and transmit messages between servers and
standardizes how data is transmitted over a browsers.
network: HTML
o Layer 1 - Physical: Deals with HTML is a set of codes in a file for displaying content
hardware like cables and routers. on a web browser, starting with the <html> tag.
o Layer 2 - Data Link: Defines data Web Browser
frames and handles addressing (MAC A web browser allows users to access internet content
addresses). like text, images, and videos. Multiple browsers can be
o Layer 3 - Network: Manages routing installed on a computer.
and addressing through IP. Popular Browsers:
o Layer 4 - Transport: Ensures data is  Internet Explorer: A widely used browser by
sent in the correct order and manages Microsoft.
transmission (TCP/UDP).  Safari: Apple's browser with strong support for
o Layer 5 - Session: Establishes, modern web technologies.
manages, and terminates communication  Firefox: A popular open-source browser.
sessions.  Opera: A small and fast browser, ideal for
o Layer 6 - Presentation: Converts data various users.
into a standard format.  Google Chrome: Google’s widely used
browser.
Domain Name  ASCII: A standard for encoding characters as
A unique name identifying an internet site, made up of numbers.
two or more parts separated by dots.  EBCDIC: IBM's character encoding system.
Domain Abbreviations:  Baud Rate: The rate of signal changes in data
 .org: Organization transmission.
 .net: Network  Bit: The smallest data unit, either 1 or 0.
 .com: Commercial  Byte: 8 bits, often representing one character.
 .edu: Education  Bandwidth: The amount of data that can be
 .gov: Government transmitted over a connection per second.
 .mil: Military  Cookies: Small data stored by a browser to track
 Country examples: .in (India), .uk (UK). user activity.
DNS  IP Address: A unique address assigned to each
DNS translates domain names to IP addresses and lists device on the internet.
mail exchange servers for each domain.  ISDN: A digital network for faster data
WWW (World Wide Web) transmission over phone lines.
The WWW is a system of linked hypertext documents  ISO: International standards organization for
accessed via the internet. networking protocols.
Website  ISP: An organization providing internet access.
A website is a collection of web pages under one  Leased Line: A private, permanent telephone
domain. line between locations.
Webpage  Modem: A device that connects a computer to a
A webpage is a single page within a website, accessible phone line for data transmission.
via one URL.  NIC: Network Information Center, responsible
Home Page for domain name registration.
The first page of a website, typically the entry point.  NFS: Protocol to access files on remote
URL machines like local files.
A URL is the web address for a page or file, consisting  Network: Computers connected to share
of the scheme, host, and path. resources, forming the internet.
Web Server  Packet: Small data chunks sent over the
A web server processes HTTP requests and serves web internet.
pages or other resources. Popular web servers include  Password: A secret code to access a locked
Apache, IIS, and Sun Java System. system.
DWSAS  PPP: A protocol for connecting computers to
Web servers handle HTTP requests and responses, the internet via a phone line.
delivering web pages and other content.  Search Engine: A tool to find documents
Internet Services: online, e.g., Google.
 E-Mail: A digital message system consisting of  Telnet: A command to log into another host
a header and body, sent between addresses. remotely.
 WAP: Wireless Application Protocol for mobile  UDP: A connectionless internet protocol.
access to information.  Usenet: A decentralized system for discussion
 VoIP: Voice over IP allows free internet phone groups across the internet
calls, e.g., Skype.
 Online Banking: Internet-based financial Microsoft Windows
transaction services. Microsoft Windows Overview:
 E-Commerce: Buying/selling goods and  Windows is a GUI-based operating system by
services online. Microsoft, replacing MS-DOS. It uses a mouse
 M-Commerce: Mobile-based commerce using for navigation instead of typing commands.
mobile devices for transactions.  Developer: Microsoft
 E-Shopping: Online shopping for goods and  First release: November 19, 1990
services.  Stable release: June 28, 2011
 E-Reservation: Making reservations for  Written in C++, available in over 35 languages,
services online. and used in Microsoft’s office suite.
 Social Networking: Platforms for social Microsoft OS History (for PCs):
interaction, e.g., Facebook. 1. MS-DOS: Early Microsoft OS, simple and
Internet Terms: similar to CP/M.
 2. Windows NT (1993): 32-bit, multitasking, 2. Edit: Undo, Copy, Paste, etc.
server and workstation versions. 3. View: Zoom, show/hide elements.
3. Windows 95 (1995): GUI-based, supports 32-bit 4. Help: Access to tutorials.
apps. 5. Start Menu: Main access point for programs
4. Windows 98 (1998): Successor to Windows 95, and files.
hybrid 16/32-bit. Windows Features:
5. Windows ME (2000): Based on Windows 98, 1. Folders: Storage for files and subfolders.
added new features like Multilingual UI. 2. Title Bar: Displays window name and includes
6. Windows XP (2001): Two versions, focused on minimize/maximize/close buttons.
mobility and wireless security. 3. Cursor: Changes shape based on action.
7. Windows Vista (2006): Enhanced UI, 4. Scroll Bar: Allows navigation through content
networking, and multimedia tools. that doesn’t fit in the window.
8. Windows 7 (2009): Upgraded from XP, 5. Address Bar: Navigates between folders.
supports 64-bit and multi-touch. 6. Dialog Box: Displays extra information or
9. Windows 8 (2012): Touchscreen-centric, new options.
Metro UI with live tiles. Mouse Clicks
Microsoft OS for Servers and Mobile:  A mouse usually has two buttons (left, right) and
1. Windows Server (2003): Powerful version for a middle button.
networking, hosting, and databases.  Left-click: Selects items; most commonly used.
2. Windows Home Server (2007): Consumer  Right-click: Opens a context-sensitive menu for
server for home network file sharing. actions on the item.
3. Windows CE (2006): For small devices like  Left-click selects options from a right-click
PDAs. menu.
4. Windows Mobile (2000): OS for smartphones, Context-Sensitive Menus
replaced by Windows Phone 7.  Menu options change based on the item clicked.
5. Windows Phone (2010): Mobile OS successor  Right-click an icon: option to open it.
to Windows Mobile.  Right-click the desktop: options to arrange or
Windows Desktop Applications: refresh icons.
1. Word: Word processor with .DOCX format. Files & Extensions
2. Excel: Spreadsheet program, competed with  A file stores data or commands and is
Lotus 1-2-3. represented by an icon in Windows.
3. Outlook: Personal info manager with email and  File extensions: Part of the filename after the
calendar. dot (e.g., .txt, .doc).
4. PowerPoint: Presentation software for  Extensions tell Windows how to handle the file.
slideshows. Common File Extensions
Other Windows Desktop Apps:  .txt: Text file
 Access: Database manager.  .doc: Microsoft Word document
 InfoPath: XML form designer.  .xlsx: Excel spreadsheet
 OneNote: Note-taking software.  .mp3: Audio file
 Publisher: Desktop publishing for brochures,  .jpg: JPEG image
newsletters, etc.  .pdf: PDF file
Windows Desktop Interface:
Dangerous Extensions
1. Icons: Small pictures representing files or
 Extensions like .exe, .bat, and .pif can run
programs.
2. My Computer: Source for drives, settings, and harmful programs.
 Be cautious with email attachments that may
data.
3. Recycle Bin: Temporary storage for deleted contain harmful extensions.
files. Hidden Extensions
 Windows hides known extensions by default.
4. My Documents: Folder for personal files
 Hidden extensions can trick users into thinking a
(renamed to "Documents").
5. My Network Places: Shows network file is safe.
 Always be cautious with files that have hidden
connections.
6. Task Bar: Bottom bar with Start button, open extensions (e.g., .scr).
apps, tray icons, and clock. Windows Programs
Windows Menu System: 1. Notepad: Basic text editor for plain files.
1. File: Options like New, Open, Save. o Open via Start → Programs →
Accessories → Notepad.
 2. WordPad: Rich text editor for various formats.  Windows Key+F1: Display Windows Help.
o Open via Start → Programs →  Windows Key+M: Minimize all windows.
Accessories → WordPad.  Windows Key+R: Open Run dialog box.
3. Paint: Simple program for creating basic  Windows Key+Shift+M: Restore minimized
graphic art. windows.
o Open via Start → Programs →  Windows Key+U: Open Utility Manager.
Accessories → Paint.
Keyboard Shortcuts for Windows Microsoft Office
 ALT+Enter: Displays properties of selected Microsoft Word Overview
object. Microsoft Word is the word processor of the Office
 ALT+F4: Close the active item/program. suite, used for creating and saving documents. These
 ALT+TAB: Switch between open items. documents can be anything from letters to reports or
 ALT+Underlined letter: Carry out the even web pages. The default file formats for documents
command in a dialog box. in Word are .docx or .doc.
 Arrow keys: Navigate between options in a How to Start Microsoft Word:
dialog box. 1. Click Start → All Programs → Microsoft Office
 BACKSPACE: Go up one level in My → Microsoft Word
Computer or Windows Explorer. Key Features in Microsoft Word:
 CTRL+Drag: Copy selected item. 1. Office Button
 CTRL+A: Select all. Located at the upper left corner, the Office
 CTRL+C: Copy. Button menu provides several options:
 CTRL+V: Paste. o New: Create a new document.
 CTRL+X: Cut. o Open: Open an existing document.
 CTRL+Z: Undo.
o Save: Save the open document.
 DELETE: Delete selected item.
o Save As: Save the open document
 ENTER: Confirm action in dialog box.
 ESC: Cancel task. under a new name.
 F1: Display Help. o Print: Print the document.
 F2: Rename selected item. o Prepare: Prepare the document for
 F3: Search for file/folder. distribution.
 F4: Display Address Bar or list in dialog box. o Send: Send the document via email or
 F5: Refresh active window. fax.
 F6: Cycle through screen elements. o Publish: Make the document available
 HOME: Display top of the window. publicly.
 LEFT ARROW: Open previous menu or o Close: Exit the open document.
collapse folder. 2. Ribbon
 RIGHT ARROW: Open next menu or expand The Ribbon is located at the top of the Word
folder. window, organized into 8 tabs:
 NUM LOCK + ASTERISK: Display o File
subfolders. o Home
 NUM LOCK + MINUS SIGN: Collapse folder. o Insert
 NUM LOCK + PLUS SIGN: Display folder o Page Layout
contents. o References
 SHIFT+DELETE: Permanently delete item.
o Mailings
 SHIFT+F10: Open shortcut menu.
o Review
 SHIFT+TAB: Move backward in dialog box.
o View Each tab contains groups of
 SPACEBAR: Select/clear check box in dialog
box. related tools.
 TAB: Move forward in dialog box. o Home Tab: Formatting and moving text
Windows Key Shortcuts (Clipboard, Font, Paragraph, Styles,
 Windows Key: Display or hide the Start menu. Editing).
 Windows Key+L: Lock computer or switch o Insert Tab: Add items like pictures,
users. symbols, and page numbers.
 Windows Key+D: Show the desktop. o Page Layout Tab: Control text and
 Windows Key+E: Open My Computer. image positioning (Themes, Page Setup,
 Windows Key+F: Search for files/folders. Page Background, Paragraph, Arrange).
 o References Tab: Tools for academic  Ctrl + L: Aligns the line or selected text to the
writing (Citations, Footnotes, Table of left of the screen.
Contents).  Ctrl + M: Indent the paragraph.
o Mailings Tab: Tools for mass mail,  Ctrl + P: Open the print window.
labels, and envelopes.  Ctrl + R: Aligns the line or selected text to the
o Review Tab: Proofing tools like right of the screen.
spelling and grammar check, adding  Ctrl + S: Save the open document (like Shift +
comments. F12).
o View Tab: Tools to change document  Ctrl + T: Create a hanging indent.
appearance on-screen (Zoom, Window,  Ctrl + U: Underline the selected text.
Macros).  Ctrl + V: Paste.
3. Tab Stops  Ctrl + X: Cut selected text.
Tab stops determine where the cursor stops after  Ctrl + Y: Redo the last action.
pressing the Tab key. These are used for text  Ctrl + Z: Undo the last action.
alignment. Types of tab stops:  Ctrl + Shift + L: Quickly create a bullet point
o Left: Text aligns to the left. list.
o Center: Text is centered.  Ctrl + Shift + F: Change the font.
o Right: Text aligns to the right.  Ctrl + Shift + >: Increase selected font size by
1pt (up to 12pt), then by 2pt.
o Decimal: Text before the decimal aligns
 Ctrl + ]: Increase selected font size by 1pt.
left, after the decimal aligns right.
 Ctrl + Shift + <: Decrease selected font size by
o Bar: Displays a vertical bar at the tab 1pt (if 12pt or lower), otherwise decrease by 2pt.
stop.  Ctrl + [: Decrease selected font size by 1pt.
4. Ruler  Ctrl + Left Arrow: Move one word to the left.
The ruler in Microsoft Word is a measurement  Ctrl + Right Arrow: Move one word to the
tool that helps align text, graphics, tables, and right.
other elements. The horizontal ruler is at the top  Ctrl + Up Arrow: Move to the beginning of the
of the document, and the vertical ruler is on the paragraph.
left.  Ctrl + Down Arrow: Move to the end of the
5. Status Bar paragraph.
Located at the bottom of the window, the status  Ctrl + Del: Delete the word to the right of the
bar shows the current state of the document. It cursor.
includes the page number and the word count.  Ctrl + Backspace: Delete the word to the left of
6. Title Bar the cursor.
The title bar is at the top of the window and  Ctrl + End: Move the cursor to the end of the
displays the name of the document or program document.
being used.  Ctrl + Home: Move the cursor to the beginning
7. Quick Access Toolbar (QAT) of the document.
Located in the top-left corner, the QAT provides  Ctrl + Spacebar: Reset highlighted text to the
quick access to frequently used features (e.g., default font.
Save). It can be customized to add or remove  Alt + Ctrl + F2: Open a new document.
commands.  Ctrl + F2: Display print preview.
Microsoft Word Shortcuts (MWSC)  Ctrl + Shift + F12: Print the document.
Keyboard Shortcuts (S D)  F1: Open Help.
 Ctrl + 0: Adds or removes 6 pts of spacing  F4: Repeat the last action performed.
before a paragraph.  F5: Open the Find, Replace, and Go To window.
 Ctrl + A: Select all contents of the page.  F7: Spellcheck and grammar check selected text
 Ctrl + B: Bold highlighted selection. or document.
 Ctrl + C: Copy selected text.  F12: Save As.
 Ctrl + D: Open the font preferences window.  Shift + F3: Toggle text between uppercase,
 Ctrl + E: Aligns the line or selected text to the lowercase, or capitalizing the first letter of every
center of the screen. word.
 Ctrl + F: Open find box.  Shift + F12: Save the open document (same as
 Ctrl + I: Italicize highlighted selection. Ctrl + S).
 Ctrl + J: Justify the selected text or line to fit  Shift + Enter: Create a soft break instead of a
the screen. new paragraph.
 Ctrl + K: Insert a hyperlink.
  Shift + Insert: Paste. o Rows run horizontally, identified by
 Shift + Alt + D: Insert the current date. numbers (e.g., 1, 2, 3).
 Shift + Alt + T: Insert the current time. o Columns run vertically, identified by
Mouse Shortcuts (M D) letters (e.g., A, B, C).
 Click, hold, and drag: Select text from where o The combination of row and column
you click and hold to the point you drag to, then creates a cell reference (e.g., A1, C5).
release.  Macros:
 Double-click: Double-clicking on a word selects o A set of instructions (e.g.,
the entire word. adding/removing rows, adding the
 Double-click (Left, Center, or Right of a current date) that automate repetitive
Blank Line): Double-clicking on a blank line tasks. You can trigger macros using a
sets the alignment of the text (left, center, or shortcut or a toolbar button.
right). Charts in Excel
 Double-click (After Text on a Line): Sets a tab Charts are visual representations of data in Excel,
stop. making it easier to identify patterns and trends. Here are
 Triple-click: Selects the entire line or paragraph the common chart types:
that you click on. 1. Column Charts:
 Ctrl + Mouse Wheel: Zoom in and out of the o Used for comparing data across
document. categories.
Microsoft Excel Overview o Subtypes:
Microsoft Excel is a widely used tool, particularly for  Clustered Column: Compares
business, where basic skills like entering and formatting values across categories.
data, performing calculations, creating reports, and  Stacked Column: Shows how
visualizing data with charts are essential. Let’s go individual items contribute to a
through some key aspects of Excel to get you started: total.
Starting Microsoft Excel  3-D Column: Displays data in
1. How to Start: 3-D.
o Click Start → All Programs → 2. Line Charts:
Microsoft Office → Microsoft Excel o Used to display trends over time or
o File formats: .xlsx or .xls. categories.
Key Excel Screen Components o Subtypes:
 Office Logo Button: Located at the top-left  Line: Displays trends over time.
corner, contains commands like New, Open,  Stacked Line: Shows trends
Save, Print, and Close. and the contribution of each
 Quick Access Toolbar: A small toolbar with value over time.
shortcuts for common tasks (Save, Undo, Redo).  3-D Line: Adds a 3-D
 Ribbon: A horizontal menu with tabs (Home, perspective to the line chart.
Page Layout, Formulas, etc.) that contain related 3. Pie Charts:
tools and options. o Shows how individual values contribute
 Formula Bar: Where you can enter formulas or to the total, often represented as
calculations. percentages of the whole.
 Spreadsheet Grid: Displays rows and columns 4. Bar Charts:
where data, charts, and other content are placed. o Useful for illustrating comparisons
 Status Bar: Shows quick summaries of selected among individual items (horizontal
cells (sum, average, count, etc.) and indicates the bars).
current status of the program. 5. Area Charts:
 Sheet Tabs: Tabs at the bottom representing o Emphasizes the magnitude of change
different worksheets in the Excel file. over time, often used to show total value
 Zoom Slider: Located at the bottom-right
trends.
corner, used to adjust the magnification of the 6. Scatter (X-Y) Charts:
worksheet. o Displays relationships between two sets
 Name Box: Displays the address of the selected
of numeric data, commonly used in
cell (e.g., A1, B3), and can be used to name a
scientific and statistical analysis.
range of cells.
Chart Components
Excel Concepts
 Chart Area: The entire area containing the
 Rows and Columns:
chart, graph, headers, and legend.
  Plot Area: The area where data markers,  Active Cell: This is the cell you’re currently
gridlines, and trendlines are plotted. working on. It’s outlined with a dark border.
 Chart Title: Descriptive text helping to identify  Fill Handle: A small box at the lower-right
the chart. corner of the active cell. Dragging this across
 Axis Titles: Titles for each axis (X, Y, Z) in 3-D cells automatically copies the content or creates
charts. a series (e.g., typing “January” and dragging it
 Legend: Identifies different data series in the will fill subsequent cells with “February,”
chart. “March,” etc.).
 Gridlines: Horizontal and vertical lines for Text and Numeric Alignment
better data visualization.  Alignment: By default, text is left-aligned and
 Data Labels: Provide additional information numbers are right-aligned. You can change
about the data points. alignment through the toolbar or the Format
Microsoft Excel Shortcuts and Functions Cells command.
Excel Keyboard Shortcuts o Options for Centering text across
 F2: Edit the selected cell. multiple cells are available, useful for
 F3: Paste a name (after creating a name in centering titles over a range of columns.
Excel).  Numeric Formatting:
 F4: Repeat the last action (e.g., formatting o Use the Format Cells dialog to change
change). how numbers are displayed (e.g.,
 F5: Go to a specific cell (e.g., C6). currency, percentage, decimal places).
 F7: Spell check the document.  Placing Borders Around Cells: The toolbar
 F11: Create a chart from selected data. offers options to add borders, and the Format
 Ctrl + Shift + ;: Insert the current time. Cells dialog offers more detailed border options.
 Ctrl + ;: Insert the current date. Using Formulas and Functions
 Alt + Shift + F1: Insert a new worksheet.  Building Formulas: All formulas in Excel
 Alt + Enter: Add a new line within a cell. begin with the equals sign (=). For example:
 Shift + F3: Open the Excel formula window. o To add cells B3, B4, and B5:
 Ctrl + 1: Open the Format Cells window. =B3+B4+B5
 Ctrl + A: Select all content in the worksheet. o To subtract: =B3-C3
 Ctrl + B: Bold the highlighted selection.  Copying Formulas: Dragging the Fill Handle
 Ctrl + I: Italicize the highlighted selection. copies the formula to adjacent cells while
 Ctrl + K: Insert a hyperlink. adjusting cell references accordingly.
 Ctrl + S: Save the open worksheet.  SUM() Function:
 Ctrl + U: Underline the selected text. o The SUM function adds a range of cells.
 Ctrl + P: Open the print dialog box. Example: =SUM(B3:B5) adds cells B3
 Ctrl + Z: Undo the last action.
through B5.
 Ctrl + F3: Open Excel Name Manager.
o AutoSum Button: Automatically
 Ctrl + Page Up/Down: Move between
creates a SUM() formula for a column
worksheets.
or row of numbers.
 Ctrl + Tab: Switch between multiple open
 Insert Function Button: Located by the
Excel files.
formula bar, this button helps you select and
 Ctrl + Space: Select the entire column.
apply built-in Excel functions from various
 Shift + Space: Select the entire row.
categories, such as math, financial, text, etc.
 Ctrl + -: Delete the selected column/row.
Other Features
 Ctrl + Shift + =: Insert a new column/row.
 Formula Creation: Besides basic math, Excel
 Ctrl + Home: Move to cell A1.
allows the use of various built-in functions for
Basic Excel Functions and Features
more advanced calculations.
 Formula Bar: Located beneath the toolbar, this
o Example: Using the Insert Function
is where you can enter or edit formulas. The
button, you can choose the function
active cell’s content appears in the formula bar.
category and specify cell references for
o Click the check mark to confirm
the function arguments.
changes or the "X" to cancel edits.
Microsoft Access Overview
 Name Box: Displays the reference of the
Microsoft Access is a relational database management
selected cell (e.g., B7). It can also be used to
system that allows users to efficiently store, retrieve, and
name ranges of cells for easier reference.
organize data. Here's a breakdown of the core elements
of Microsoft Access, including components, views, and o Special web pages for viewing and
shortcuts. interacting with Access data over the
Starting MS Access web or intranet.
 How to Launch: 6. Macros:
o Go to Start → All Programs → o Automate repetitive tasks. For example,
Microsoft Office → Microsoft Access. running a macro can open a report with
Access Interface and Toolbars a single click.
1. Database Toolbar: 7. Modules:
o Located beneath the menu bar, the o Contain Visual Basic for Applications
database toolbar includes buttons for (VBA) code that adds custom
common tasks such as opening the functionality to the database.
Relationships window, adding objects, Key Elements of MS Access
and exporting to other Office programs. 1. Field Name:
It can be customized to show multiple o A label that identifies the type of data in
toolbars. a field.
2. Datasheet Toolbar: 2. Field Type/Data Type:
o Provides buttons for common actions o Defines the type of data a field can hold
when working in Datasheet View, (e.g., Text, Memo, Number).
allowing you to edit records. o Common data types include:
3. Design Toolbar:  Text: Up to 255 characters.
o Appears when you're working in Design  Memo: Larger text fields.
View and is used for editing tables,  Number: Integer or floating-
creating relationships, and setting keys. point numbers.
Components of an Access Database  Date/Time: Stores date and
An Access database consists of several components time.
known as objects:  Currency: Stores monetary
1. Tables: values.
o Store the actual data and consist of 3. Primary Key:
records (rows) and fields (columns). o A field (or combination of fields) that
2. Queries: uniquely identifies each record in a
o Retrieve specific data from one or more table.
tables. Queries are categorized as: 4. Validation Rule:
 Select Query: Retrieves and o A condition that must be met before
displays data. data is entered into the database.
 Parameter Query: Prompts the MS Access Views
user to enter specific values. 1. Datasheet View:
 Cross-tab Query: Summarizes o Displays and allows for data entry,
data in a grid format with row though it doesn't allow structural
and column headings. changes to the database.
 Action Query: Modifies data, 2. Design View:
like updating or deleting o Used for creating or modifying database
records. structure, including setting primary keys
 SQL Query: Uses SQL to retrieve and field types.
data. 3. Relationship View:
3. Forms: o Defines relationships between different
o Used for data entry, allowing users to tables in the database (e.g., one-to-one,
input data in a more structured and one-to-many, many-to-many).
user-friendly interface. Access Shortcuts and Hotkeys
4. Reports: Here are some commonly used shortcuts in MS Access:
o Allow users to print data from tables or General Shortcuts
queries, often designed with specific  F1: Open Access Help.
formats like mailing labels.  F11: Display the database window.
5. Pages:  Ctrl + N: Open a new database.
  Ctrl + O: Open an existing database. 3. Title Bar:
 Ctrl + P: Print the current object. o The Title Bar displays the name of the
 Ctrl + S: Save the current database object. current presentation. By default, new
 Ctrl + W: Close the active window. presentations are named
Data Entry in Datasheet/Form "Presentation1," but you can rename
 Ctrl + Plus Sign (+): Add a new record. them once saved.
 Ctrl + Minus Sign (–): Delete the current record. 4. The Ribbon:
 Ctrl + ;: Insert the current date. o The Ribbon holds all the commands and
 Ctrl + :: Insert the current time. features you'll use to edit your
 Ctrl + Alt + Spacebar: Insert the default value presentation. It’s divided into Tabs,
for a field. such as Home, Insert, and Design. Each
Editing Text/Data tab contains Command Groups, with
 Ctrl + C: Copy selected data. buttons to perform related actions.
 Ctrl + V: Paste copied data.  Clipboard: Cut, copy, paste, and
 Ctrl + X: Cut the selected data. format painter tools.
 Ctrl + Z: Undo the last action.  Slides: Commands to add or
 Shift + F2: Open the Zoom box for entering delete slides.
large amounts of data.  Font: Font formatting
Finding and Replacing Data commands (bold, italics, size,
 Ctrl + F: Open the Find dialog. etc.).
 Ctrl + H: Open the Replace dialog.  Paragraph: Align text, adjust
Navigating Fields spacing, and bullets.
 Right Arrow: Move one character to the right.  Drawing: Add shapes or other
 Ctrl + Right Arrow: Move one word to the right. drawing elements to slides.
 Home: Move to the beginning of the field. 5. Status Bar:
 Ctrl + Home: Move to the beginning of a multi- o Shows the slide number and total
line field. number of slides. It also displays the
Microsoft PowerPoint current design template and allows you
Microsoft PowerPoint is a powerful tool for creating to toggle between Outline and Slides
presentations. Whether you're making a presentation for views. You can switch between views
a class, business meeting, or other professional purposes, using the View buttons.
PowerPoint makes it easy to design, edit, and present Views in PowerPoint
your content. This guide covers the essential elements of 1. Normal View:
PowerPoint and how to start creating and managing o Split into three sections:
presentations.
 Slides Tab: Displays thumbnails
How to Start Microsoft PowerPoint
of your slides.
 Launching PowerPoint:
 Outline Tab: Displays the text
o Go to Start → All Programs →
from the slides.
Microsoft Office → Microsoft
 Slide Pane: Displays a large
PowerPoint.
view of the slide you’re
o The default file format for PowerPoint
currently working on.
presentations is .pptx.
 Notes Area: Allows you to add
Key Components of PowerPoint 2007
speaker notes.
1. Microsoft Office Button:
2. Slide Sorter View:
o Located in the upper-left corner, the
o Displays thumbnails of all slides in the
Office button gives access to essential
presentation, making it easy to
tasks like opening, saving, and printing
rearrange, add, or delete slides.
presentations.
3. Slide Show View:
2. Quick Access Toolbar:
o This view lets you see how your slides
o This toolbar, located next to the Office
will appear to an audience. Use this
button, includes frequently used
view to run your presentation.
commands like Save, Undo, and Redo.
 Esc: Exit the slide show.
You can customize it by adding your
most-used tools.
  Left-click: Move to the next  Ctrl + End: Move the cursor to the end of the
slide or animation. presentation.
 Right-click: Open a pop-up Using PowerPoint Effectively
menu to navigate, add speaker PowerPoint is designed to help you create professional-
notes, or mark slides. looking presentations quickly and easily. With the
Zoom Controls various views, formatting options, and helpful shortcuts,
 Zoom In and Out: Adjust the view of your slide you can streamline the creation process and deliver
using the zoom slider at the bottom-right impactful presentations to your audience.
corner. Zooming in enlarges the slide, while
zooming out shows more of the workspace. Computer Security (Cyber Security / IT Security)
Window Management Computer security protects computing devices and
networks from unauthorized access, theft, and
 Minimize: Reduces the window to the taskbar.
disruption.
 Maximize: Expands the window to full-screen
Key Components of Computer Security
size. 1. Confidentiality:
 Restore: Returns the window to its original size Ensures information is accessible only to
after maximizing. authorized users.
 Close: Exits PowerPoint and closes the program. 2. Integrity:
PowerPoint Shortcuts Ensures data is trustworthy and unaltered
Here are some useful keyboard shortcuts to increase without permission.
your efficiency in PowerPoint: 3. Availability:
General Shortcuts Ensures information and systems are accessible
 F5: Start Slide Show. when needed.
 Ctrl + M: Insert a new slide. 4. Access Control:
 Ctrl + N: Open a new blank presentation. Restricts access to systems and data based on
 Ctrl + O: Open an existing presentation. user permissions.
 Ctrl + W: Close the presentation. Transport Layer Security (TLS)
 Ctrl + S: Save the presentation. TLS encrypts communications over the internet,
 Ctrl + P: Print the presentation. ensuring privacy and security during data transmission.
Text Formatting Common Sources of Virus Attacks
 Ctrl + B: Bold selected text. 1. Downloadable Programs:
Downloading untrusted executable files can lead
 Ctrl + I: Italicize selected text.
to infections.
 Ctrl + U: Underline selected text.
2. Illegal Software:
 Ctrl + A: Select all items on the current slide.
Cracked software may contain malware and
 Ctrl + D: Duplicate the selected object. pose security risks.
Slide Navigation 3. Email Attachments:
 Spacebar/Click: Move to the next slide. Email attachments, especially from unknown
 Esc: End the slide show. senders, may carry viruses.
 Shift + F1: Open Help. 4. Using the Internet:
Editing and Managing Slides Visiting untrusted websites can expose systems
 Ctrl + F: Open the Find dialog box. to malware.
 Ctrl + G: Open the Grids and Guides dialog box. 5. Booting from Unknown CDs:
 Ctrl + H: Open the Replace dialog box. Infected CDs can introduce viruses if
 Ctrl + Shift + Home: Select all text from the automatically booted.
cursor to the start of the active text box. 6. USB Drives:
 Ctrl + Shift + End: Select all text from the cursor USB drives can spread viruses; always scan
to the end of the active text box. them before use.
Navigating the Presentation 7. Not Running Updates:
 Home: Move the cursor to the beginning of the Outdated systems are vulnerable to attacks.
Regular updates are crucial.
current line of text.
Types of Network Security Attacks
 End: Move the cursor to the end of the current
1. Passive Attack:
line of text.
The attacker monitors unencrypted traffic to
 Ctrl + Home: Move the cursor to the beginning steal information.
of the presentation.
 2. Active Attack: 7. Macro Viruses:
The attacker alters data or introduces malware Affect files created with programs containing
into a system. macros, automating actions.
3. Distributed Attack: Problems Caused by Viruses
Malicious code spreads from a trusted system to  Data Destruction:
others. Viruses can delete or corrupt data stored on hard
4. Phishing Attack: drives.
A fake website tricks users into providing login  Boot Sector Issues:
details. A virus may change the boot sector, making the
5. Hijack Attack: computer unbootable.
The attacker takes control of a communication  Slower Performance:
session. Viruses running in memory can slow down
6. Spoof Attack: computer operations.
The attacker disguises the origin of network  BIOS Damage:
traffic. Some viruses can damage the BIOS, leading to
7. Password Attack: system failures.
Attackers try to crack passwords using methods Other Malware Types
like dictionary or brute-force attacks.  Computer Worms:
Malware Overview Worms replicate independently and spread
Malware is software used to disrupt computer across networks, exploiting security weaknesses.
operations, gather sensitive information, or gain  Trojans:
unauthorized access to systems. It can take the form of Malicious programs that perform unauthorized
executable code, scripts, or other types of software. actions like deleting or copying data. Unlike
'Badware' is sometimes used as a broader term for both viruses, Trojans don’t replicate.
malicious and unintentional harmful software.  Spyware:
Types of Malware Software that secretly gathers information about
 Computer Viruses: a person or organization without their
Viruses replicate themselves by attaching to knowledge and sends it to another entity.
other programs or documents, spreading via Security Threats
email and other methods. They can take control 1. Spoofing:
of a computer without the owner’s knowledge. Falsifying data to impersonate another system
 Viruses and Spam: (e.g., IP address spoofing).
Virus creators and spammers make infected 2. Hacking:
computers into spam-generating machines. Modifying a system for unintended purposes,
These machines unknowingly send vast amounts often for unauthorized access.
of spam emails. 3. Cracking:
Common Types of Computer Viruses Attacking software security to enable illegal
1. Resident Viruses: actions, usually for profit.
These stay in RAM, interrupting system 4. Phishing:
processes and corrupting files. Stealing sensitive info by masquerading as a
2. Overwrite Viruses: trustworthy entity.
These viruses delete data in infected files, 5. Spam:
rendering them useless. Unsolicited, bulk email, often irrelevant or
3. Direct Action Viruses: harmful.
These replicate and infect files when certain 6. Adware:
conditions are met. Software that displays ads, often in exchange for
4. File Infectors: free access.
Infect executable files, activating the virus when 7. Rootkits:
the program runs. Malicious software that hides in an OS, allowing
5. Boot Viruses: unauthorized access.
Infect the boot sector, preventing the computer Security Solutions
from starting up. 1. Anti-Virus Software:
6. Directory Viruses: Keep all systems protected and updated.
Alter file paths, making it hard to locate the 2. Firewall:
original file. Block unauthorized network access.
 3. Email Filtering:  CAI : Computer Aided Instruction
Prevent malicious attachments in emails.  CAM : Computer Aided Manufacturing
4. Scan Downloads:  CASE : Computer Aided Software Engineering
Check files for viruses before use.  CCNA : Cisco Certified Network Associate
5. Vulnerability Management:  CD : Compact Disc
Regularly patch systems to fix security flaws.  CD RW : Compact Disc ReWritable
6. Security Policy:  CDMA : Code Division Multiple Access
Create and enforce a company-wide information  CDROM : Compact Disc Read Only Memory
security policy.  CGI : Common Gateway Interface
7. Strong Passwords:  CISC : Complex Instruction Set Computer
Use complex, hard-to-guess passwords.  CLR : Common Language Runtime
8. Certificates & Digital Signatures:  CMOS : Complementary Metal Oxide
Verify identity and ensure data integrity. Semiconductor
Permissions  COBOL : Common Business Oriented
 Read: View contents. Language
 Write: Modify/add files.  CPI : Clock Cycle Per Instruction
 Read & Execute: View and run files.  CPU : Central Processing Unit
 Modify: Read, write, delete.  CRM : Customer Relationship Management
 Full Control: All actions (read, write, delete).  CRT : Cathode Ray Tube
Security Protocols  CUI : Character User Interface
1. SSL: D
Encrypts server-client communication.  DAC : Digital To Analog Converter
2. IPsec:  DBA : Data Base Administrator
Secures network data at the IP level.  DBMS : Data Base Management System
 DCL : Data Control Language
Abbreviations  DDL : Data Definition Language
A  DHCP : Dynamic Host Control Protocol
 ACE : Access Control Entry  DHTML : Dynamic Hyper Text Markup
 ADSL : Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line Language
 ADC : Analog To Digital Converter  DLC : Data Link Control
 AI : Artificial Intelligence  DLL : Dynamic Link Library
 ALGOL : Algorithmic Language  DMA : Direct Memory Access
 ALU : Arithmetic Logic Unit  DML : Data Manipulation Language
 ANSI : American National Standards Institute  DNA : Distributed Internet Architecture
 API : Application Program Interface  DNS : Domain Name System (Server)
 ARP : Address Resolution Protocol  DOM : Document Object Model
 ARPANET : Advanced Research Projects  DOS : Disk Operating System, Denial Of
Agency Network Service
 ASCII : American Standard Code For  DRAM : Dynamic Random Access Memory
Information Interchange  DSL : Digital Subscriber Line
 ATM : Asynchronous Transfer Mode  DSN : Digital Subscriber Network
 AUI : Attachment Unit Interface  DTD : Document Type Definition
 AVI : Audio Video Interleave  DVD : Digital Versatile Disc
B E
 BASIC : Beginner's All Purpose Symbolic  EAROM : Electrically Alterable Read Only
Instruction Code Memory
 BCD : Binary Coded Decimal  EBCDIC : Extended Binary Coded Decimal
 BHTML : Broadcast Hyper Text Markup Interchange Code
Language  EDC : Electronic Digital Computer
 BIOS : Basic Input Output System  EDCDIC : Extended Binary Coded Decimal
 BIU : Bus Interface Unit Interchange Code
 BMP : Bitmap  EEPROM : Electrically Erasable Programmable
 BPS : Bytes Per Second Read Only Memory
C  ENIAC : Electronics Numerical Integrator And
 CAD : Computer Aided Design Calculator
 CADD : Computer Added Drafting And Design
  EPROM : Erasable Programmable Read Only  MDI : Multiple Document Interface
Memory  MDS : Microcomputer Development System
 EROM : Erasable Read Only Memory  MFT : Master File Table
 ERP : Enterprise Resource Planning  MG : Mega Bytes
 EULA : End User License Agreement  MICR : Magnetic Ink Characters Reader
F  MIME : Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions
 FAT : File Allocation Table  MIPS : Millions Of Instructions Per Second
 FDD : Floppy Disk Drive  MISD : Multiple Instruction Single Data
 FDMA : Frequency Division Multiple Access  MODEM : Modulator And Demodulator
 FIFO : First In First Out  MP3 : Motion Pictures Experts Group Layer 3
 FORTRAN : Formula Translation  MPEG : Motion Pictures Experts Group
 FPS : Frames Per Second  MS : Microsoft
 FRAM : Ferro Electric Random Access Memory  MSDN : Microsoft Developer Network
 FTP : File Transfer Protocol  MSN : Microsoft Network
G  MTU : Maximum Transmission Unit
 GB : Giga Bytes  NAS : Network Attached Storage
 GUI : Graphical User Interface  NASSCOM : National Association Of Software
H & Service Companies
 HDD : Hard Disk Drive  NCP : Network Control Protocol
 HP : Hewlett Packard  NDIS : Network Driver Interface Specification
 HTML : Hyper Text Markup Language  NTFS : New Technology File System
 HTTP : Hyper Text Transfer Protocol  NTP : Network Time Protocol
 IO : Input Output O
 IBM : International Business Machines  OCR : Optical Character Readers
 IC : Integrated Circuit  OLE : Object Linking And Embedding
 ICMP : Internet Control Message Protocol  OMR : Optical Mark Reader
 IE : Internet Explorer  OOP : Object Oriented Programming
 IGMP : Internet Group Management Protocol  OOPS : Object Oriented Programming System
 IP : Internet Protocol  OS : Operating System
 IRC : Internet Relay Chat  OSI : Open System Interconnection
 IRQ : Interrupt Request P
 ISDN : Integrated Services Digital Network  PC : Personal Computer
 ISO : International Standard Organization  PCI : Peripheral Component Interconnect
 ISP : Internet Service Provider  PCMCIA : Personal Computer Memory Card
 ISR : Interrupt Service Routine International Association
 IT : Information Technology  PDA : Personal Digital Assistant
J  PDF : Portable Document Format
 JPEG : Joint Photographic Experts Group  PDL : Page Description Language
K  PDU : Protocol Data Unit
 KB : Kilo Bytes  PIC : Programming Interrupt Control
 Kb : Kilo Bit  PLA : Programmable Logic Array
 KBPS : Kilo Bytes Per Second  PLC : Programmable Logic Controller
L  PNG : Portable Network Graphics
 L2TP : Layer Two Tunneling Protocol  PNP : Plug And Play
 LAN : Local Area Network  PPP : Peer To Peer Protocol
 LCD : Liquid Crystal Display  PPTP : Point To Point Tunneling Protocol
 LIFO : Last In First Out  PROM : Programmable Read Only Memory
 LIPS : Logical Interfaces Per Second Q
 LOC : Lines Of Code  QDR : Quad Data Rate
 LSI : Large Scale Integration  QEP : Quoted for performance
M  QDS : Quality of service
 MAC : Media Access Control R
 MAN : Metropolitan Area Network  R ADSL : Rate Adaptive Digital Subscriber
 MB : Mega Bytes Line
 MBPS : Mega Bytes Per Second  RAID : Redundant Array Of Independent Disks
 MCS : Multicast Server  RAM : Random Access Memory
  RAMDAC : Random Access Memory Digital  UNIX : Uniplexed Information And Computer
To Analog Converter Systems
 RAS : Remote Access Network  URL : Universal Resource Locator
 RD RAM : Rambus Dynamic Random Access  USB : Universal Serial Bus
Memory  USRT : Universal Synchronous Receiver
 RDBMS : Relational Data Base Management Transmitter
System  UTP : Unshielded Twisted Pair
 RICS : Reduced Instruction Set Computer V
 RIP : Raster Image Processor  VAN : Virtual Area Network
 RISC : Reduced Instruction Set Computer  VB : Visual Basic
 ROM : Read Only Memory  VCD : Video Compact Disc
 RPC : Remote Procedure Call  VGA : Video Graphics Array
 RTC : Real Time Clock  VLSI : Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits
 RTF : Rich Text Format  VPN : Virtual Private Network
 RTOS : Real Time Operating System  VRAM : Video Random Access Memory
S  VS : Visual Studio
 SACK : Selective Acknowledgements W
 SAP : Service Access Point, Systems  WAN : Wide Area Network
Applications Products  WAP : Wireless Application Protocol
 SD RAM : Synchronous Dynamic Random  WINDOWS ME : Windows Millennium Edition
Access Memory  WINDOWS NT : Windows New Technology
 SDD : Software Design Description  WINDOWS XP : Windows Experienced
 SDK : Software Development Kit  WORM : Write Once Read Many
 SDL : Storage Definition Language  WWW : World Wide Web
 SDN : Integrated Service Digital Network  WSIWG : What You See Is What You Get
 SDRAM : Static Dynamic Random Access X
Memory  XHTML : Extensible Hyper Text Markup
 SDSL : Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line Language
 SG RAM : Synchronous Graphics Random  XML : Extensible Markup Language
Access Memory  XSL : Extensible Style Sheet Language
 SGML : Standard Generalized Markup Z
Language  ZIP : Zone Information Protocol
 SIM : Subscriber Identification Module  ZB : Zeta Byte
 SIU : Serial Interface Unit  ZISC : Zone Instruction Set Computer
 SMS : Short Message Service
 SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Glossary
 SNMP : Simple Network Management Protocol Access Time: Time from starting one access to the next
 SQA : Statistical Quality Assurance access.
 SQL : Structured Query Language Accessory: A device attached to a computer to expand
 SRAM : Static Random Access Memory its capabilities, e.g., printers, scanners.
 SRS : Software Requirements Specification Active Cell: The cell currently in use or being modified
 STP : Shielded Twisted Pair in a spreadsheet.
 SW : Software Active Window: The window the user interacts with in
T Microsoft Windows.
 TB : Tera Bytes Accumulator: Register storing results from arithmetic
 TCP : Transmission Control Protocol or logic operations.
 TCPIP : Transmission Control Protocol Internet Analog Computer: A computer that uses physical
Protocol variables (e.g., electrical signals) to represent data.
 TDI : Transport Data Interface Antivirus: Software that protects against viruses and
 TDMA : Time Division Multiple Access removes them.
U Artificial Intelligence: Machines’ ability to perform
 UDD : User Datagram Protocol tasks requiring human intelligence.
 UDP : User Datagram Protocol ASCII: Code for exchanging information between
 UI : User Interface computers, using 7 binary digits for each character.
 UML : Unified Modelling Language Abstraction: Separating data or function from its
implementation in a program.
Address: Identifier for a device or storage location. Compressed File: A file reduced in size using a
Algorithm: A set of rules for solving a problem in steps. compression program.
Alphanumeric: Character set containing letters, digits, CDMA: A method for accessing communication
and punctuation. channels using spread spectrum technology.
Analog: Data in continuously variable physical Clock: A device generating periodic signals to regulate
quantities (e.g., temperature, voltage). system operations.
Analog Device: A device that uses continuously variable Coding: The process of writing a program in a
quantities (e.g., pressure, resistance). programming language.
Analog-to-digital Converter: Device that converts Compatibility: The ability to meet interface
analog signals to digital signals. requirements.
Android: Linux-based OS for mobile devices like CMOS: A type of integrated circuit used in processors
smartphones and tablets. and memory.
Application Software: Software designed for specific Complexity: The difficulty in understanding or
user needs, like payroll or navigation. verifying a system.
Architecture: Organizational structure of a system or Constant: A value that does not change during
component. processing.
Asynchronous: Occurring without a regular time Cookie: A packet of information exchanged between a
relationship. browser and a web server.
Attribute: Characteristics of an entity. Control Bus: A bus that carries signals to regulate
Auxiliary Storage: Storage devices other than RAM, system operations.
like disks and tapes. Crash: A sudden and complete system failure.
Backup: Making copies of data to restore it after loss. Criticality: The impact of an item on system
Bar Code: A series of lines and spaces used to identify development or operation.
products or locations. Cursor: A visible mark indicating position on a display.
Biometric Device: Device that identifies people based Data: Raw facts, the basis for information.
on physical traits. Database: An integrated data resource for an
Bitmap: A format for storing digital images in memory. information system.
Bluetooth: Wireless tech for exchanging data over short DDR: Double Data Rate RAM used in video cards.
distances. Digital: Information translated into 1s and 0s.
Booting: Loading an operating system into RAM. Digital Computer: A system based on discrete data, like
Browse: Viewing data in a database, usually without binary.
modifying it. DVD: A storage medium that can hold up to 10GB or
Band: Range of frequencies used for transmitting more.
signals. Data Bus: A bus used for transferring data between
Bandwidth: Transmission capacity of a communication devices.
channel, often in bits per second. Default: A preset option used when no alternative is
Baud: The rate of signal transitions on a line. specified.
Bias: Measure of how close measurements are to the Default Value: A value automatically assigned if no
true value. user input is provided.
Binary: A number system using only 0 and 1. Demodulation: Converting analog signals into digital
Bit: The basic unit of digital data (0 or 1). pulse form.
Bits per Second: Speed of data transfer in a Design: The process of defining a system's components
communication system. and characteristics.
Boolean: Algebra of variables that can be true (1) or Developer: A person or group involved in building or
false (0). configuring systems.
Bootstrap: A small program that loads a larger one, like Digital-to-Analog Converter: A device that converts
an OS. digital signals to analog.
Branch: An instruction that jumps to a new point in a Direct Memory Access: A process where data is
program. transferred directly between memory and memory
Buffer: A memory area used to store data temporarily. without using the CPU.
Bug: A flaw in a program causing unintended behavior. Disk: A magnetic storage device, either hard (fixed) or
Bus: A pathway for data and control signals within a flexible (removable).
system. Disk Drive: A device for reading or writing data to a
Byte: A group of adjacent bits, typically eight. disk.
Blog: A website for discussion or information sharing. Documentation: Materials that explain the structure and
use of a system.
Driver: A program linking a device to the operating  IP: “Internet Protocol,” the standard used for
system. Internet communication.
Downloading: Retrieving files from the Internet to store  Inkjet Printer: A printer that sprays ink droplets
locally. to form images.
Ethernet: A protocol for connecting computers in a  ISDN: A digital telecommunications standard
LAN. with speeds up to 128 Kbps.
Embedded Computer: A device with computing power  Interface: Hardware or software that allows
dedicated to specific functions. communication between devices.
Error: A discrepancy between observed and true values.  Internet: The global network connecting
Exception: An event that interrupts normal program millions of computers for information sharing.
operation.  IP Address: A unique numeric address
End User: An individual who uses the information identifying a device on the Internet.
generated by a computer.  Intranet: A private network within an
File: A collection of related records or data stored on a organization.
disk.  Installation: The phase where hardware/software
Font: The visual appearance of a character set. is assembled and tested.
Format: The arrangement of data on storage media or  Instruction: A command telling a computer to
preparation of storage devices. perform a task.
Fax: A machine used for electronically transmitting  Instruction Set: A list of commands recognized
copies of documents. by a computer or programming language.
Failure: The inability of a system to perform required  Interrupt: Temporarily stopping a process to
functions. handle an external event.
Fault: An incorrect step in a program causing J
unintended behavior.  Java: A programming language with sandboxed
Fiber Optics: Communication systems using optical code for secure Internet downloads.
fibers.  JPEG: A file format for compressing images.
Firmware: Software embedded in hardware that cannot  Jukebox: A device storing and accessing
be modified during processing. multiple data sets like CDs or tapes.
Flag: A variable indicating a specific state, often true or  Job: A user-defined task for a computer to
false. complete.
Gopher: A program that searches for files on the  Kernel: The essential part of an operating
Internet and presents them hierarchically. system that stays in memory.
Gigahertz: A unit of frequency equal to one billion  Keyboard: An input device for entering data into
hertz. a computer.
H L
 Hacker: A person with security expertise who  Laptop: A portable, compact computer ideal for
illegally accesses secure servers to steal or alter traveling.
data.  LCD: “Liquid Crystal Display” used for
 Hard Copy: A printed version of computer notebook or computer screens.
output.  Linux: An open-source operating system
 Hard Disk: A permanent data storage device available for free.
inside a computer case.  Log on & Log off: Processes for securing access
 Home Page: The starting page of a website. to servers by entering or exiting.
 Host: A networked computer that provides  Large Scale Integration (LSI): ICs with 3,000 to
services to others. 100,000 transistors.
 Handshake: A sequence of signals where each  Latency: The time delay in data transfer after a
waits for acknowledgment before proceeding. CPU initiates a call.
 Hazard: A condition that could lead to a mishap. M
 Hertz: A frequency unit, 1 cycle per second.  Monitor: A high-resolution screen displaying
 Hexadecimal: A base 16 system using digits 0-9 computer output.
and A-F, used to simplify binary data.  Motherboard: The central circuit board
I connecting all computer components.
 Information Technology (IT): Use of technology  MP3: A compressed audio file format.
for information processing.  MPEG: A video compression standard.
 Input/Output (I/O): Refers to computer input or  Multimedia Application: Programs combining
output operations. text, sound, video, and animation.
  Multitasking: Running multiple programs at the  Processor: The part of the computer that
same time. executes instructions.
 Macro: A sequence of instructions inserted into  Program: (1) A set of instructions for a
a program. computer. (2) The process of creating software.
 Mainframe: A large computer system.  Programming: Writing code for software.
 MTBF: A measure of system reliability, average  Programming Language: A language for
time between failures. instructing a computer.
 Medium Scale Integration (MSI): ICs with 100  Parallel: Simultaneous execution of multiple
to 3,000 transistors. processes.
 Megabit: 1 million bits.  Parity: A method for detecting errors in data
 Megabyte: 1 million bytes. transmission.
 Megahertz: A frequency unit equal to 1 million  Parity Bit: A bit added to ensure the correct
cycles per second. number of 1s in data.
 Memory: A device that stores data temporarily  Pixel: The smallest element of a display surface.
or permanently.  Packet Switching: A method of transmitting data
 Metal-Oxide Semiconductor: A type of chip in blocks (packets).
using metal, oxide, and semiconductor layers.  Printed Circuit Board: A flat board holding
 Microcomputer: A small, personal computer. electronic components.
 Minicomputer: A medium-sized computer.  Prototyping: Using software to quickly develop
 Mnemonic: A memory aid or symbol. a system’s features.
 Modem: A device that modulates and  Pseudocode: A blend of programming and
demodulates digital signals. natural language to outline software design.
 Modulation: Converting data from binary to Q
analog signals.  Qwerty: Standard keyboard layout with Q, W,
 Multiplexer: A device that combines multiple E, R, T, Y on the top row.
data sources into one.  Quality assurance: Planned activities to ensure
N a system meets technical requirements.
 Network Interface Card (NIC): A hardware  Quality control: Techniques to meet quality
component that connects a computer to a requirements.
network.  Query: Request for information from a
 Network: A system connecting computers via database.
transmission channels. R
 Nibble: Half a byte, 4 bits.  Recursion: Defining a process in terms of itself.
 Node: A connection point in a network.  Register: Small, high-speed memory in a
 Null: A value representing no data or an processor for operations and addresses.
undefined value.  Reliability: System's ability to perform under
O specified conditions.
 Offline: Data or devices not connected to a  Risk: Measure of probability and severity of
network. undesired effects.
 Online: Data or devices connected to a network.  Robustness: System's ability to function under
 Object Code: Machine language code ready for invalid inputs or stressful conditions.
execution.  Routine: Subprogram called by other programs.
 Object Program: A program produced by a  Routing: Choosing the best path in a network.
compiler or assembler.  RS-232-C: Standard for serial communication in
 Octal: The base 8 number system. electronic equipment.
 Optimization: Improving program performance S
by using fewer resources.  Scanner: Hardware that digitizes images into
P computer files.
 Password: A secret string of characters used for  Search Engine: Tool matching keywords with
security. web content.
 Peripheral: An external device like a printer or  Server: Computer or software providing
scanner. services to others on a network.
 Plugin: A software component that adds features  Surfing: Random exploration of web pages.
to a browser.  Software: Set of instructions guiding computer
 Personal Computer: A small computer for actions.
individual use.
  System software: Manages computer resources  UPS: Device providing power backup during
and operations. outages.
 Sensor: Device converting environmental  Unit: Separately testable part of software or
variables to electrical signals. program.
 Serial: Data transmitted one bit at a time.  Usability: Ease of use for operating and
 Small scale integration: ICs with up to 100 interpreting a system.
transistors.  User: Person or entity using an information
 Software engineering: Systematic approach to system.
software development. V
 Source code: Instructions in a form for  Virus: Program that replicates itself and
translation into machine code. compromises systems.
 Source program: Program to be compiled or  Version: Release or re-release of software.
translated into executable form.  Version number: Identifier for different
 Specification: Document detailing versions of software.
system/component requirements.  Very large scale integration: ICs with 100,000
 Storage device: Unit to store and retrieve data. to 1,000,000 transistors.
 SSL/Secure Socket Layer: Security protocol  Volume: Data portion that can be handled as a
for encrypted online communication. unit.
 Structured programming: Software W
development using structured design.  Web Page: Single document on a website.
 Subroutine: Routine returning control to the  Webcasting: Delivering audio/video content
calling program. online.
 Synchronous: Occurring at regular intervals.  World Wide Web: Internet part with
 Syntax: Rules for forming valid expressions in a interconnected web pages.
language.  Workstation: Personal computer or terminal
 Swapping: Storing and transferring programs used for work.
between disk and memory.  Worm: Self-replicating program affecting
 Synchronization: Ensuring data is received in system performance.
order during transmission. Z
T  Zoom: Enlarging or reducing images on a
 Terabyte: Approximately one trillion bytes. monitor.
 Terminal: Device for sending and receiving  Zombie: Hijacked computer used for malicious
information to/from a computer. activities.
 Test: Activity to evaluate system performance
under conditions. Technologies and Terms used in Internet Banking
 Test case: Documentation for a system test.
 Testing: Operating a system to observe and Online Banking:
evaluate results. Once seen as a groundbreaking technology, online
 Touch screen: Display that reacts to touch banking now helps banks offer services on-the-go and
input. adapt operational models. Almost all banks now provide
 Traceability: Linking development products to it, with competition driving innovation. The goal
establish relationships. remains to offer value, convenience, and customer
 Trojan horse: Malicious program disguised as satisfaction.
useful software. ATM:
 Truth table: Table listing all possible input An Automated Teller Machine (ATM) lets customers
combinations and outputs. perform financial transactions without a bank teller,
 Twisted pair: Two insulated wires twisted to using a card and PIN. ATMs allow withdrawals, balance
reduce interference. checks, and mobile top-ups, often offering better
U exchange rates for foreign travelers.
 Unix: Family of operating systems with similar Website Security:
functions. With online transactions growing, banks prioritize
 Upload: Transfer data from a client to a server. website security. Measures include encryption, fraud
 USB: Connection standard for peripherals. management teams, and user verification. Advanced
 URL: Address of a web file, including path and tools like SSL certificates, multi-factor authentication,
filename. and biometrics protect users, while monitoring and fraud
prevention technologies strengthen overall security.
Technologies in Internet Banking: like 'Spot Your Train' and 'Live Station' for real-time
 ACH: A transfer between accounts, like moving info.
funds from checking to savings. BBPS by RBI:
 AAy: Waiving hard charges based on account RBI's Bharat Bill Payment System (BBPS) will
balance. centralize bill payments, allowing anytime, anywhere
 CM: Software for retail and corporate banking, transactions via BBPS and BBPOUs.
including payroll and wire transfers. India’s Supercomputers:
 EBPP: Enables customers to view and pay bills India plans to invest ₹4,500 crore for 73
online in four stages: enrollment, presentment, supercomputers, aiming to join the peta-scale computing
approval, and payment. league. The project will take 7 years.
 EFT: Transfers money electronically between
accounts.
 EFTPS: Internet-based tax payments.
 EDI: Exchanging documents between
computers via telephone lines.
 FEDI: Transmitting payment instructions and
details using international message standards.
 IBk (OBk): Tools to access bank accounts and
transactions from a computer.
 MP: A file posted to your account for pending
transactions in batch mode.
 NSF: Insufficient funds for a transaction.
 Page Counter: Tracks how many times a
webpage has been viewed.
 SET: A secure protocol for online credit card
payments involving the user, merchant, and
bank.
 TIN: Taxpayer Identification Number.
 TW: A website for transactions like bill
payments or e-commerce purchases.

Current Information and Developments in IT field

National E-Mail Service:

DeitY is creating an Indian email service, first for the
government, then citizens, ensuring national security
with fast communication. Launch expected by
November under the "Digital India" program.
ICICI Bank Cardless Withdrawal:
ICICI Bank’s new service lets customers send money to
anyone with a mobile number, allowing recipients to
withdraw cash from ATMs without a card.
Dot Bharat Domain:
The government launched Dot Bharat (.bharat) in
Devanagari script for 8 regional languages, aiming to
improve e-governance and connect people in their native
languages.
Digital Locker:
PM Modi's initiative will store government-issued
certificates digitally, allowing easier access by
government departments, eliminating the need for
physical copies.
Railways E-Ticketing System:
IRCTC’s new e-ticket system can book 7,200 tickets per
minute, with mobile apps for train tracking and features