Reactive Power

Control
Getachew Biru (Dr.-Ing.)
Introduction

Why Do We Need Reactive Power?

• Reactive power (VARS) is required to maintain the
voltage to deliver active power (watts) through
transmission lines.
• Motor loads and other loads require reactive power to
convert the flow of electrons into useful work.
• When there is not enough reactive power, the voltage
sags down and it is not possible to push the power
demanded by loads through the lines.
Introduction

What is Reactive Power?

• While active power is the energy supplied to run a
motor, heat a home, or illuminate an electric light
bulb, reactive power provides the important function
of regulating voltage.
• If voltage on the system is not high enough, active
power cannot be supplied.
• Reactive power is used to provide the voltage levels
necessary for active power to do useful work.
• Reactive power is essential to move active power
through the transmission and distribution system to
the customer.
Introduction

• Voltage must be maintained within acceptable levels

under normal system conditions, both peak or off
peak load conditions, the voltages need to be
maintained between 95% and 105% of the nominal.
• Low voltage conditions could result in equipment
malfunctions:
⮚ For a specified power rating, lower voltage
results in more current and this results in
heating problems. (P=VI).
⮚ Motor will stall, overheat or damage.
⮚ Reactive power output of capacitors will be
reduced exponentially.
⮚ Generating units may trip.
Introduction

• High voltage conditions may:

⮚ Cause insulation failure.
⮚ Trip major transmission equipment
⮚ Electric motors will tend to run on over speed
when they are fed with higher voltages
resulting in vibration and mechanical damage.
Introduction

Voltage and Reactive Power

• Voltage and reactive power must be properly managed
and controlled to:
⮚ Provide adequate service quality
⮚ Maintain proper stability of the power system.
Reactive Power and Voltage Control

• For understanding the

relationship between
the Reactive Power
flow in a Transmission
Line and Voltage drop,
we will consider Short
Transmission Line for
simplicity.
• A short transmission
Vs = Sending End Voltage
line is one whose length Vr = Receiving End Voltage
R = Line Resistance
is less than 80 km. L = Line Inductance
Z = Impedance of Line
Reactive Power and Voltage Control

• The sending end Voltage Vs is related to the receiving end

voltage Vr as below
Vr ≈ Vs – ZIr
where Z is the series impedance of the line consisting of
resistance R and inductive reactance X. Z=R+jX
• Therefore,
Vr ≈ Vs – ZIr ≈ RIrcosφ+ XIrsinφ ≈ (R P+X Q)/Vr
as VrIrcosφ =P and VrIrsinφ =Q
• Now as R is quite small in comparison with X, it can be further
simplified as:
Vs – Vr ≈ (XQ)/Vr
This expression indicates that following important points:
The voltage drop for a given Receiving End Voltage Vr depends on
Reactive Power Flow,Q.
Reactive Power Control Equipment

Reactive Power and Voltage

• Automatic voltage regulator
• capacitors and reactors
• Tap-changing transformers
Voltage Control Equipment

Use of Generators
Generators are the backbone of voltage control.
This section will describe the use of generators for
reactive power production and absorption.
Voltage Control Equipment

Use of Generators: Excitation System

The excitation system is used to control the terminal
voltage and MVAr production of the generator.
Voltage Control Equipment

Use of Generators:
• The automatic voltage regulator (AVR) senses the
voltage level at the generator terminals via a potential
transformer (PT). Circuitry is included in the voltage
regulator to compare the voltage measured to a set-
point voltage.
• If the measured voltage is lower than the set point the
AVR will cause the excitation system to increase the
DC excitation current. This DC current is applied to the
generator’s rotor field winding.
Voltage Control Equipment

Reactive Capability Curves

• The MVAr support capabilities of each generator are
defined by each unit’s reactive capability curve. The
Figure is an example of a generator’s reactive
capability curve.
• This plot illustrates the limits of acceptable generator
operation. The horizontal axis of the plot represents
the MW produced by the generator. The positive
vertical axis represents MVAr produced by the
generator and the negative vertical axis represents
MVAr absorbed by the generator.
Voltage Control Equipment

Reactive Capability Curves

When operating in the
upper half of the curve
the generator is supplying
reactive power to support
the system voltage. This
type of operation is called
lagging or overexcited.
When operating in the
lower half of the curve
the generator is
absorbing
reactive power to lower
system voltage. This type
of operation is called
leading or underexcited
operation.
 Voltage Control Equipment
Synchronous Condenser: Synchronous motor working at
over-exited condition

• A synchronous condenser is a conventional

solution that has been used for decades for
regulating reactive power before there were
any power electronics compensation
systems.
• A conventional synchronous condenser is
an AC synchronous motor that is not
attached to any driven equipment.
 Voltage Control Equipment
Synchronous Condenser: Synchronous motor working at
over-exited condition
When the projection of the phasor EA onto
Vφ (EAcosδ) is shorter than Vφ, a
synchronous condenser has a lagging
current and consumes Q. Since the field
current is small in this situation, the motor is
said to be under-excited.

When the projection of the phasor EA

onto Vφ (EAcosδ) is longer than Vφ, a
synchronous condenser has a leading
current and supplies Q to the system.
Since the field current is large in this
situation, the motor is said to be over-
excited (synchronous condenser)
 Voltage Control Equipment
Synchronous Condenser: Synchronous motor working at
over-exited condition
In general, over excitation will cause the synchronous
motor to operate at a leading power factor, while
under exercitation will cause the motor to operate at a
lagging power factor.
Voltage Control Equipment

Use of Capacitors and Reactors

• Capacitors and reactors can be designed to be
a permanent part of the system (fixed, not
switchable) or be switched in and out-of-
service via circuit breakers.
Voltage Control Equipment

Capacitors
• Capacitors are viewed as sources of reactive
power. Capacitors can be connected to the
power system in either a shunt or series
connection.
• Shunt capacitors are used to supply reactive
power to the system.
• Series capacitors are used to reduce the
impedance of the path in which they are
inserted.
 Voltage Control Equipment

Series Capacitors
• Series capacitors are installed in transmission
lines to reduce the line’s natural inductive
reactance.
• The reactance of a series capacitor is out-of phase with a
transmission line’s inductive reactance. The series
capacitor reactance subtracts from the line’s inductive
reactance, reducing the overall line reactance.
Voltage Control Equipment
Series Capacitors
A utility could completely eliminate the line’s
reactance and maximize transfer capability by
adding enough series reactance capacitors to
completely cancel the line’s inductive reactance
(X=XL-XC).
Voltage Control Equipment

Series Capacitors
Voltage Control Equipment

Shunt Capacitors
• Shunt capacitors are a source of MVAr that
are installed in close proximity to the point
they are needed.
• Shunt capacitor switching is often used to
control normal daily fluctuations in system
voltage levels due to load changes.
Voltage Control Equipment

Shunt Capacitors
Voltage Control Equipment

Shunt Capacitors
The usage of shunt capacitor banks suffers from the following
drawbacks:
1. Shunt capacitors do not affect current or power factor
beyond their point of application.
2. The reactive power supplied by the shunt capacitor banks is
directly proportional to the bus voltage.
3. When the reactive power required is less on light loads,
capacitor bank output will be high. This disadvantage can be
eliminated by connecting a number of capacitors in parallel
and then capacitance can be varied by switching ON or OFF
depending upon load requirement.
Voltage Control Equipment
Reactors
• Reactors can be viewed as absorbers or sinks of
reactive power. Reactors can be connected to the
power system in either a shunt or series
connection.
• Shunt reactors are used to absorb reactive power
from the system. Series reactors are used to
increase the reactance of the path in which they
are inserted.
 Voltage Control Equipment
Shunt Reactors
• Shunt reactor banks are used to absorb excessive
reactive power from the power system and thereby
reduce system voltages. When high voltage transmission
lines are built, fixed and switchable reactor banks are
often installed to help reduce the overvoltages caused
by lightly loaded high voltage lines.

Vs

-j I X
I
Vr

Ix
 Voltage Control Equipment
Series Reactors
• Reactors can also be installed in series. Series reactor
installations are not uncommon in the distribution
system or within older power plants.
• Series reactors add inductive reactance to a path thereby
increasing the overall path impedance. The primary use
of series reactors is to limit fault current.
 Voltage Control Equipment
Static VAr Compensators (SVC)
• A static VAr compensator (SVC) is similar to a synchronous
condenser in that it is also used to supply or absorb reactive
power. However in an SVC there are no rotating parts, every
element is static.
• SVCs are composed of shunt reactors and shunt capacitors. High
speed electronic switching equipment (thyristor switches) are
used to adjust the amount of reactors or capacitors in-service at
any one time.
Voltage Control Equipment
Static VAr Compensators (SVC)
• These are thyristor
switched capacitors or
TSCs.
• The thyristors controlling
these shunt capacitors
are similar to a circuit
breaker.
• The thyristors will switch
the shunt capacitors in-
service or out-of-service
very rapidly once a
command to switch is
received.
 Voltage Control Equipment
Static synchronous compensators (STATCOMs)
• The STATCOM is a solid-state shunt device that
generates or absorbs reactive power and is one member
of a family of devices known as flexible AC transmission
system (FACTS).
• The exchange of reactive power between the converter
and the ac system can be controlled by varying the
amplitude of the 3-phase output voltage of the
STATCOM.
• The STATCOM rather than using conventional capacitors
and inductors, the STATCOM uses power electronics to
synthesize the reactive power output.
 Voltage Control Equipment
STATCOM:
• V1 represents the output voltage of the STATCOM. In case of
reactive power demand increases in the power system, STATCOM
increases its output voltage V1 while maintain the phase difference
between V1 and V2 to zero.
• As V1 > V2, reactive power will flow from STATCOM to the power
system. Thus STATCOM, supplies reactive power and acts as
reactive power generator.
• Again, if the voltage of power system increases due to load throw
off, STATCOM will reduce its output voltage V1 and therefore will
absorb reactive power to stabilize the voltage to normal value.
Voltage Control Equipment
STATCOM has the following
components: The coupling
inductance
1) A Voltage Source Converter, suppress the
output
VSC: used to convert the DC current
ripple.
input voltage to an AC output
voltage.
2) DC Capacitor: used to supply
constant DC voltage to the
voltage source converter, VSC.

• The d.c voltage can be provided by a battery or an energy-storage capacitor.

• The output of a STATCOM is a set of three phase voltage, each in phase and
coupled to the corresponding a.c system voltage through a small reactance.
 Voltage Control Equipment
STATCOM has the following components:
3) Inductive Reactance: A
Transformer is connected between
the output of VSC and Power
System. Transformer basically acts
as a coupling medium. In addition,
Transformer neutralize harmonics
produced by VSC.

4) Harmonic Filter: Harmonic Filter

attenuates the harmonics and
other high frequency components
due to the VSC.
Voltage Control Equipment
Sub-synchronous Resonance (SSR) and Series Capacitors
• Every transmission system has a series resonance frequency.
• Turbine generators used within the electric system also have
natural frequencies of oscillation.

Synchronous Resonance (SSR) is a phenomenon in which electrical energy is

exchanged between generators and transmission systems below power
frequency. It can be caused due to interaction of a series compensated
transmission line with a generator; in addition, results in oscillation in the shaft
and power swing. SSR causes increasing the magnitudes of voltage and current
consequently occurrence of ferroresonance.
Voltage Control Equipment
Sub-synchronous Resonance (SSR) and Series Capacitors
• Synchronous Resonance (SSR) is a phenomenon in
which electrical energy is exchanged between
generators and transmission systems at resonace
frequency.
• It can be caused due to interaction of a series
compensated transmission line with a generator; in
addition, results in oscillation in the shaft and power
swing.
SSR causes increase of
the magnitudes of voltage
and current consequently
occurrence of
ferroresonance.
Voltage Control Equipment
Sub-synchronous Resonance (SSR) and Series Capacitors
• When the turbine/generator’s natural frequencies of
oscillation are close to the series resonance frequencies
of the transmission network, severe forces can develop
on the turbine/generator shaft.
• These forces can damage
the shaft and lead to
considerable generator
damage.
• The term sub-synchronous
resonance or SSR is the
name given to this.
 Voltage Control Equipment
Subsynchronous Resonance(SSR) and Series Capacitors

• The frequency at which series resonance will occur is.

• This formula tells us that the frequency at which series

resonance occurs is dependent on the ratio of the series
capacitive reactance (XC) and series inductive reactance
(XL).
• The ratio of XC to XL is very small so the series resonance
frequency is well below 60/50 Hz.
 Voltage Control Equipment
Sub-synchronous Resonance (SSR) and Series Capacitors

• Utilities use several methods to prevent and/or control

subsynchronous resonances, including: minimizing the use of
series capacitors by implementing other methods of
improving power system stability.
• Installing filtering devices that block low frequency currents
from entering a generator.